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Alpha-gal syndrome

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Alpha-gal syndrome
Other names: Acquired red meat allergy; mammalian meat allergy (MMA); alpha-gal allergy; tick bite meat allergy
Roastbeef, a common tigger of alpha-gal syndrome
SpecialtyAllergy and immunology
SymptomsHives, nausea, heartburn, swelling, diarrhea, shortness of breath, lightheadedness[1]
ComplicationsAnaphylaxis[1]
Usual onset2–6 post eating red meat[1][2]
CausesBites by certain ticks[3]
Diagnostic methodBased on symptoms, antibody testing[4]
Differential diagnosisMilk allergy, pork-cat syndrome, primary beef allergy[5][6]
PreventionAvoiding tick bites[4]
TreatmentEpinephrine, antihistamines[7]
FrequencyUp to 450,000 (USA)[3]

Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS), also known as red meat allergy, is a type of acquired allergy to mammalian meat.[2][4] Symptoms may include hives, nausea, heartburn, swelling, diarrhea, abdominal pain, shortness of breath, and lightheadedness.[1] Onset is generally 2–6 hours after eating mammalian meat.[1][3] Some also react to gelatin, glycerin, dairy products, and certain medications like heparin and cetuximab.[3][8][9] Complications may include anaphylaxis.[1]

It may start following tick bites, by lone star ticks in the USA, Ixodes holocyclus in Australia, or Ixodes ricinus in Europe.[3] The bite injects the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose ("alpha-gal"), to which antibodies are produced.[2] Alpha-gal is not found in primates, including humans.[10][5] Diagnosis is based on symptoms and antibody testing.[4]

Symptoms may be treated with antihistamines if mild or epinephrine if severe.[7][2] People are generally prescribed epinephrine auto-injectors for potential home use and a medical alert bracelet.[2][9] It is recommended to avoid beef, pork, lamb, venison, and rabbit.[4] People may eat poultry, seafood, and eggs.[8] While the allergy may become less severe over time, this may take years.[7]

Alpha-gal allergy has affected nearly half a million people in the United States, particularly in the Southeast.[3] It has been reported in 17 countries on six continents, particularly the United States and Australia.[11] Adults are most commonly affected.[4] While initial descriptions appear to date back to 1925, a clear understanding only came about in the 2000s.[3] The delayed onset and that it occurs due to a carbohydrate rather than protein are unusual for food allergies.[3][7]

Signs and symptoms

Anaphylaxis is a potential life-threatening reaction to the allergy

A typical allergic reaction to alpha-gal has a delayed onset, occurring 3–8 hours after consuming mammalian meat products. However, there have been some instances of onset of symptoms occurring within 2 hours.[12] After the delayed onset, the allergic response is like most food allergies, and especially an IgE-mediated allergy, including severe whole-body itching, hives, angioedema, gastrointestinal upset, and possible anaphylaxis.[13][14] Anaphylactic reactions are seen in approximately 60% of afflicted individuals.[10]

There have been cases where gastrointestinal symptoms arise without pruritus, hives, or other skin involvement. This presentation is not typical of food allergies, which can make initial suspicion of alpha-gal syndrome less likely.[12] In 70% of cases, the reaction is accompanied by respiratory distress and is particularly harmful to those with asthma.[15] However, not every exposure to alpha-gal results in allergic reaction for some people with the allergy.[13]

It is worth noting that symptoms and overall reactions can vary greatly between individuals with alpha-gal syndrome.[10] It has been found that other factors, including exercise and alcohol consumption, can potentially affect an individual's symptoms and overall reactivity to alpha-gal.[10] Increased risk has also been discovered in those without type B or type AB blood, as the type B blood antigen is similar to alpha-gal and may confer some level of immunity.[10]

The severity of symptoms and overall reaction correlate with the amount of alpha-gal carbohydrate in the ingested food or drug.[12]

Cause

Amblyomma americanum, a vector for the allergy
Ixodes holocyclus, the species of hard-bodied tick most likely to be responsible in Australia for the allergy

Alpha-gal allergies develop after a person has been bitten by the lone star tick in the United States, the European castor bean tick, the paralysis tick or Ixodes (Endopalpiger) australiensis in Australia,[16][11] Haemaphysalis longicornis in Japan,[17] or a currently unknown tick in South Africa, possibly Amblyomma hebraeum.[18][19] Alpha-gal is not naturally present in apes, Old World monkeys, or humans, but is in all other mammals.[14] If a tick feeds on another mammal, the alpha-gal remains in its alimentary tract. The role of the tick Amblyomma americanum, commonly found throughout the US, in the context of tick bites has been confirmed using an alpha-gal knockout mouse model.[20]

The tick injects the alpha-gal into a person's skin with its bite. Recent research has shown that saliva from the lone star tick contains alpha-gal,[21] and that saliva is injected into the bloodstream. Researchers still do not know which specific component of tick saliva causes the reaction.[22] The immune system then releases a flood of IgE antibodies to fight this foreign sugar.[13] After this reaction, the future intake of mammalian meat with the same alpha-gal causes an allergic reaction.[13] Symptoms of the allergy reaction are caused by too many IgE antibodies attacking the allergen – the alpha-gal.[13][16] Other types of ticks are suspected of causing similar problems.[23] Only a small percentage of children and adults will acquire a red meat allergy after receiving a bite from a lone star tick.[24]

A 2012 study found unexpectedly high rates of alpha-gal allergy in the western and north-central parts of the United States. This suggests that unknown tick species may spread the allergy.[25] The study found alpha-gal allergy cases in Hawaii, where no ticks identified with the allergies live.[22] Human factors were suggested, but no specific examples were provided.[25]

Blood thinners derived from porcine intestine and replacement heart valves derived from porcine tissue may also contain alpha-gal.[16] Alpha gal is found on the fragment-antigen binding (Fab) fragment of the recombinant monoclonal cetuximab antibody used in the immunotherapy treatment of metastatic colon cancer. Immediate hypersensitivities and reactions, specifically concentrated in the southern part of the United States, can be seen from the alpha-gal components of this anti-cancer drug.[26][27][13] Increasing evidence now suggests reactions to certain substances with traces of alpha-gal used in the preparation of certain medications, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and other analgesics and pain medications.[10]

Anaphylactic transfusion reactions have been reported in patients with presumed alpha-gal syndrome who had type O blood and received group B plasma or platelets.[28] The B blood group antigen is antigenically similar to Galactose-alpha-1,3-Galactose.[29]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis begins with initial suspicion of alpha-gal syndrome following a thorough review of an individual's medical history and clinical symptoms.[10] Regarding laboratory testing, diagnosis tends to be difficult, and no specific test is recommended over others.[10]

A blood test for the specific antibody, IgE, to the alpha-gal carbohydrate, is commonly used for diagnosis in clinical practice. Typically, a level of 1% for IgE specific for alpha-gal out of total IgE in the body has been identified in patients with alpha-gal syndrome.[12] Traditional skin-prick allergy tests for allergy to meat may give a false-negative answer and are not generally considered reliable.[30][12] Skin and basophil activation tests with cetuximab are the most sensitive, but high costs limit their use.[31]

In certain instances in which a person does not present with the typical symptoms and history of alpha-gal syndrome but is found to have elevated alpha-gal IgE levels, improvement with avoidance of red meat can be diagnostic, as well.[12]

Prevention

Main article: Ixodes holocyclus § Tick removal

Tick bites can be prevented by treating clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin and avoiding areas inhabited by ticks.[32] Other recommendations are to conduct tick checks after coming inside, remove outdoor clothing articles and run them in a dryer on high heat to kill undetected ticks. Taking a shower or bath promptly can aid in detecting ticks on the skin.[33]

Debate exists around the best method of tick removal. Low-quality evidence favors mechanical techniques over chemical treatments such as gasoline, petroleum jelly, or clear fingernail polish. Mechanical techniques involve pulling with forceps or commercial devices. Pulling is slightly favored over rotation with forceps to remove ticks.[34]

Treatment

In addition to avoiding triggers, such as mammalian meat, treatment is aimed at alleviating symptoms and is highly dependent on severity. If an allergic individual who only experiences relatively mild symptoms consumes food containing alpha-gal, then treatment with over-the-counter antihistamines may be acceptable.[24] In cases where more severe reactions—like anaphylaxis—are observed, admission to a hospital for emergency treatment is necessary.[12] In these situations, treatment is the same as for any anaphylactic reaction, with epinephrine.[35]

Desensitization

As of 2017, two successful desensitizations have been performed on people with an alpha-gal allergy.[36]

Prognosis

There is no cure for alpha-gal; the main form of management is abstaining from mammalian meat, including lamb, beef, pork, and other mammalian products if necessary.[37][12] These products have been found to have the highest risk of reaction, whereas dairy products present a much lower risk. Avoidance of dairy is not generally recommended as most afflicted individuals do not have reactions to dairy consumption.[12]

Unlike most food allergies, in some people, the alpha-gal allergy may recede over time as long as another tick does not bite the person. It has been found that with avoidance of further tick bites, levels of serum IgE decline.[12] The recovery period can take 8 months to 5 years.[16][22][38]

History

The allergy was first formally identified as originating from tick bites in the United States in 2002 by Thomas Platts-Mills,[39] and independently by Sheryl van Nunen in Australia in 2007.[40][41][42]

In 2006, researchers Thomas Platts-Mills and Scott Commins attempted to discover why some people were allergic to the cancer drug cetuximab,[16][43][12] and discovered that these individuals had IgE antibodies in their blood that were targeted to the portion of cetuximab which contained the alpha-gal carbohydrate.[12] When Platts-Mills was bitten by a tick and developed alpha-gal allergies, his team concluded that a link existed with tick bites.[38] They found that the IgE antibody response to the mammalian oligosaccharide epitope alpha-gal was associated with both the immediate-onset anaphylaxis during first exposure to intravenous cetuximab and the delayed-onset anaphylaxis 3 to 6 hours after eating beef or pork.

Platts-Mills, Tina Hatley Merritt, and Scott Commins were attempting to discover why some people were reacting negatively to the cancer drug cetuximab.[16][43][12] They had previously hypothesized that a fungal infection or parasite could lead to the allergy.[16][38] They discovered that these individuals had IgE antibodies in their blood that were specifically targeted to the portion of cetuximab which contained the alpha-gal carbohydrate.[12] When Platts-Mills was bitten by a tick and developed alpha-gal allergies, his team concluded that a link existed between tick bites and the allergy.[38] They found that the IgE antibody response to the mammalian oligosaccharide epitope alpha-gal was associated with both the immediate-onset anaphylaxis during first exposure to intravenous cetuximab and the delayed-onset anaphylaxis 3 to 6 hours after ingestion of mammalian food products, such as beef or pork.[44]

As of November 2019, Australia has the highest rate of mammalian meat allergy and tick anaphylaxis worldwide.[45] In the US, the allergy most often occurs in the central and southern regions, which corresponds to the distribution of the Lone Star tick.[46] In the Southern United States, where the tick is most prevalent, allergy rates are 32% higher than elsewhere.[25] However, as physicians are not required to report the number of patients with alpha-gal allergy, the true number of affected individuals is unknown. Arkansas was the first state to make alpha-gal syndrome a reportable condition in the United States. [47] Alpha-gal has also been shown to exist in the saliva of Ixodes scapularis but not Amblyomma maculatum.[21]

Van Nunen, an immunologist specialising in allergies, had been practicing in a tick-prone area of Sydney, when 25 patients reported having allergic reactions to red meat after being bitten by ticks.[48][49] She later concluded that the relatively sudden rise in cases was the result of a local fox baiting program that began in 2003. Foxes were introduced to Australia and had decimated the local indigenous bandicoot population, hence the fox baiting program. However, an unforeseen effect of the subsequent rise in the bandicoot population was the rise in ticks, as bandicoots are a major host for ticks, thus the number of humans suffering tick bites.[50]

Alpha-gal allergies are similar to pork–cat syndrome; hence misidentification can occur. Pork–cat syndrome usually elicits an immediate allergic response, while a true alpha-gal allergy typically features a delayed allergic reaction of 3 to 8 hours after ingestion of the allergen.[51]

In 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the genetic modification of pigs so they do not produce alpha-gal sugars. Pigs developed with the trademarked name GalSafe may be able to be eaten safely by people with alpha-gal allergy.[52] They may also produce alpha-gal-safe drugs,[53] and their organs can also be used for xenotransplantation.[54]

For those undergoing surgery, possible triggering agents include porcine-derived heart valves, insulin, heparin, thrombin, and surgifoam powder.[55]

American guidelines published in 2023 recommended physicians to suspect alpha-gal syndrome in cases with abdominal pain and GI symptoms, but without traditional allergy symptoms like hives.[23]

In 2023, a false conspiracy theory connecting alpha-gal syndrome to Gates Foundation tick research was spread on social media.[56][57]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 "Symptoms of Alpha-gal Syndrome". Alpha-gal Syndrome. CDC. 2 August 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Mollah, F; Zacharek, MA; Benjamin, MR (2 January 2024). "What Is Alpha-Gal Syndrome?". JAMA. 331 (1): 86. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.23097. PMID 38064235. Archived from the original on 30 December 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Wilson, JM; Erickson, L; Levin, M; Ailsworth, SM; Commins, SP; Platts-Mills, TAE (June 2024). "Tick bites, IgE to galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose and urticarial or anaphylactic reactions to mammalian meat: The alpha-gal syndrome". Allergy. 79 (6): 1440–1454. doi:10.1111/all.16003. PMID 38193233.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 "About Alpha-gal Syndrome". Alpha-gal Syndrome. CDC. 10 June 2025. Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Commins, SP (July 2020). "Diagnosis & management of alpha-gal syndrome: lessons from 2,500 patients". Expert review of clinical immunology. 16 (7): 667–677. doi:10.1080/1744666X.2020.1782745. PMID 32571129.
  6. ↑ "Alpha Gal Reaction". fpnotebook.com. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "Alpha-gal and Red Meat Allergy". www.aaaai.org. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Products That May Contain Alpha-gal". Alpha-gal Syndrome. CDC. 17 May 2024. Retrieved 19 June 2025.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Jeimy, S; Zhu, R (3 October 2023). "Tick-borne red meat allergy (α-gal syndrome)". CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne. 195 (38): E1305 – E1306. doi:10.1503/cmaj.231067. PMID 37788844. {{cite journal}}: Missing pipe in: |journal= (help)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Vaz-Rodrigues, Rita; Mazuecos, Lorena; de la Fuente, José (July 2022). "Current and Future Strategies for the Diagnosis and Treatment of the Alpha-Gal Syndrome (AGS)". Journal of Asthma and Allergy. 15: 957–970. doi:10.2147/JAA.S265660. PMC 9307871. PMID 35879928.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Kwak M, Somerville C, van Nunen S (July 2018). "A novel Australian tick Ixodes (Endopalpiger) australiensis inducing mammalian meat allergy after tick bite". Asia Pacific Allergy. 8 (3): e31. doi:10.5415/apallergy.2018.8.e31. PMC 6073180. PMID 30079309.
  12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 Platts-Mills et al. 2020
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 "Alpha-gal syndrome". US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020-10-06. Archived from the original on 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Mabelane, T.; Ogunbanjo, G. A. (2019). "Ingestion of mammalian meat and alpha-gal allergy: Clinical relevance in primary care". African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine. 11 (1): e1 – e5. doi:10.4102/phcfm.v11i1.1901. PMC 6494999. PMID 31038347. Mammalian meat and milk (cow and goat) contain alpha-gal.
  15. ↑ Wolver SE, Sun DR, Commins SP, Schwartz LB (February 2013). "A peculiar cause of anaphylaxis: no more steak? The journey to discovery of a newly recognized allergy to galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose found in mammalian meat". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 28 (2): 322–5. doi:10.1007/s11606-012-2144-z. PMC 3614139. PMID 22815061.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 Zaraska, Marta (December 3, 2013). "Want hives with that burger?". The Washington Post. pp. HEALTH, E01. Archived from the original on September 13, 2020. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
  17. ↑ Cabezas-Cruz, Alejandro; Hodžić, Adnan; Román-Carrasco, Patricia; Mateos-Hernández, Lourdes; Duscher, Georg Gerhard; Sinha, Deepak Kumar; Hemmer, Wolfgang; Swoboda, Ines; Estrada-Peña, Agustín; de la Fuente, José (2019-05-31). "Environmental and Molecular Drivers of the α-Gal Syndrome". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1210. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01210. PMC 6554561. PMID 31214181.
  18. ↑ Facey-Thomas, Heidi (2018-01-08). "Alpha-gal". Allergy Foundation South Africa. Archived from the original on 2020-01-17. Retrieved 2025-05-29.
  19. ↑ Mabelane (2018). "Predictive values of alpha-gal IgE levels and alpha-gal IgE:total IgE ratio and oral food challenge proven meat allergy in a population with a high prevalence of reported red meat allergy". Pediatric Allergy and Immunology. 29 (8): 841–9. doi:10.1111/pai.12969. PMID 30144162. S2CID 52082108.
  20. ↑ Sharma, Surendra Raj; Choudhary, Shailesh K.; Vorobiov, Julia; Commins, Scott P.; Karim, Shahid (8 February 2024). "Tick bite-induced alpha-gal syndrome and immunologic responses in an alpha-gal deficient murine model". Frontiers in Immunology. 14. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1336883. PMC 10680608.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Crispell, Gary; Commins, Scott P.; Archer-Hartman, Stephanie A.; Choudhary, Shailesh; Dharmarajan, Guha; Azadi, Parastoo; Karim, Shahid (17 May 2019). "Discovery of Alpha-Gal-Containing Antigens in North American Tick Species Believed to Induce Red Meat Allergy". Frontiers in Immunology. 10: 1056. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01056. PMC 6533943. PMID 31156631.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Kroen, Gretchen Cuda (November 16, 2012), Ticked Off About a Growing Allergy to Meat, ScienceNOW, archived from the original on November 1, 2021, retrieved March 24, 2014
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Ticks! Ick! The latest science on the red meat allergy caused by some tick bites". Archived from the original on 2025-05-24. Retrieved 2025-05-29.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 lalawilson. "Acquired Red Meat Allergy". Epidemiology. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Chan, Amanda L. (November 9, 2012). "Where Meat Allergy From Ticks Is Most Common". Healthy Living.
  26. ↑ Chung CH, Mirakhur B, Chan E, Le QT, Berlin J, Morse M (2008). "Cetuximab-induced anaphylaxis and IgE specific for galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose". New England Journal of Medicine. 358 (11): 1109–17. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa074943. PMC 2361129. PMID 18337601.
  27. ↑ Dunkman WJ, Rycek W, Manning MW (2019). "What Does a Red Meat Allergy Have to Do With Anesthesia? Perioperative Management of Alpha-Gal Syndrome". Anesthesia and Analgesia. 129 (5): 1242–8. doi:10.1213/ANE.0000000000003460. PMID 29847378.
  28. ↑ Miller MJ, Lee P, Lee BG, Flegel WA, West-Mitchell K, Conry-Cantilena K, De Giorgi V (May 2024). "Consideration for alpha-gal syndrome in two critically ill persons with group O blood who received group B plasma". Transfusion. 64 (5): 949–951. doi:10.1111/trf.17811. PMC 11104486. PMID 38566573.
  29. ↑ Gilstad CW, Conry-Cantilena K, Zarpak R, Eder AF (October 2023). "An outbreak of anaphylactic transfusion reactions to group B plasma and platelets and its possible relationship to Alpha-Gal syndrome". Transfusion. 63 (10): 1997–2000. doi:10.1111/trf.17521. PMID 37642435.
  30. ↑ Krishna N, Krishna S, Krishna R (November 2017). "P112 Correlation between clinical findings and laboratory tests for alpha gal sensitivity". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 119 (5): S37. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2017.08.136.
  31. ↑ Bircher AJ, Hofmeier KS, Link S, Heijnen I (February 2017). "Food allergy to the carbohydrate galactose-alpha-1,3-galactose (alpha-gal): four case reports and a review". European Journal of Dermatology. 27 (1): 3–9. doi:10.1684/ejd.2016.2908. PMID 27873733. S2CID 2400078.
  32. ↑ CDC (2020-07-01). "Preventing tick bites on people | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  33. ↑ Eisen L (July 2022). "Personal protection measures to prevent tick bites in the United States: Knowledge gaps, challenges, and opportunities". Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 13 (4): 101944. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101944. PMC 10859966. PMID 35364518.
  34. ↑ Huygelen V, Borra V, De Buck E, Vandekerckhove P (August 2017). "Effective methods for tick removal: A systematic review". J Evid Based Med. 10 (3): 177–188. doi:10.1111/jebm.12257. PMID 28464468.
  35. ↑ Commins, Scott P. (2020-07-02). "Diagnosis & management of alpha-gal syndrome: lessons from 2,500 patients". Expert Review of Clinical Immunology. 16 (7): 667–677. doi:10.1080/1744666X.2020.1782745. PMC 8344025. PMID 32571129.
  36. ↑ Unal D, Coskun R, Demir S, Gelincik A, Colakoglu B, Buyukozturk S (2017). "Successful beef desensitization in 2 adult patients with a delayed-type reaction to red meat". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice. 5 (2): 502–3. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2016.12.008. PMID 28132797.
  37. ↑ "Alpha-gal syndrome - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Archived from the original on 2019-06-08. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Goetz, Gretchen (June 26, 2012). "Red Meat Allergy Likely Cause by Tick Bites". Food Safety News. Archived from the original on August 2, 2021. Retrieved May 29, 2025.
  39. ↑ "NIAID Scientists Link Cases of Unexplained Anaphylaxis to Red Meat Allergy". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 28 November 2017. Archived from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 29 May 2025.
  40. ↑ Velasquez-Manoff, Moises (2018-07-24). "What the Mystery of the Tick-Borne Meat Allergy Could Reveal". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  41. ↑ McKenna, Maryn (2018-12-11). "What is behind the spread of a mysterious allergy to meat?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2018-12-11. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  42. ↑ "Mammalian meat allergy: People on the northern beaches becoming allergic to red meat after tick bites". www.news.com.au. 2016-06-13. Archived from the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Commins SP, Platts-Mills TA (October 2009). "Anaphylaxis syndromes related to a new mammalian cross-reactive carbohydrate determinant". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 124 (4): 652–7. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.026. PMC 2774206. PMID 19815111.
  44. ↑ Berg EA, Platts-Mills TA, Commins SP (February 2014). "Drug allergens and food--the cetuximab and galactose-α-1,3-galactose story". Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. 112 (2): 97–101. doi:10.1016/j.anai.2013.11.014. PMC 3964477. PMID 24468247.
  45. ↑ Lawson, Kirsten (20 Nov 2019). "Gluten 'lifestylers' undermine efforts on coeliac disease". The Canberra Times. p. 4.
  46. ↑ "Meat Allergy: Alpha-Gal Reaction From Lone-Star Ticks More Common In Central, Southern U.S. Regions". HuffPost. 2012-11-09. Archived from the original on 2012-11-15. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
  47. ↑ Frazier, Andrea (March 20, 2014). "Tick bite makes Lusby woman allergic to meat". The Washington Post. pp. METRO, T20. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018.
  48. ↑ McMahon, Alle (2019-01-18). "How tick bites can make some people allergic to meat and milk". ABC News. Archived from the original on 2019-03-07. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  49. ↑ "Mammalian meat allergy: a tick-ing time bomb?". Australian Veterinary Association. Archived from the original on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  50. ↑ "Tick-induced allergies, with Associate Professor Sheryl van Nunen". MJA Podcasts. Medical Journal of Australia. 2018. Episode 27. Archived from the original on 2019-03-27. Retrieved 2019-03-08.
  51. ↑ Zaraska, Marta (December 3, 2013). "Cat owners can also develop meat allergy". The Washington Post. pp. HEALTH, E05. Archived from the original on June 25, 2018.
  52. ↑ Dolgin, Elie (2021-04-01). "First GM pigs for allergies. Could xenotransplants be next?". Nature Biotechnology. 39 (4): 397–400. doi:10.1038/s41587-021-00885-9. ISSN 1546-1696. PMID 33846652. S2CID 233223010. Archived from the original on 2022-06-17. Retrieved 2025-05-29.
  53. ↑ Commissioner, Office of the (2020-12-14). "FDA Approves First-of-its-Kind Intentional Genomic Alteration in Line of Domestic Pigs for Both Human Food, Potential Therapeutic Uses". FDA. Archived from the original on December 14, 2020. Retrieved 2021-10-30.
  54. ↑ "Progress in Xenotransplantation Opens Door to New Supply of Critically Needed Organs". NYU Langone News. Archived from the original on 2021-10-30. Retrieved 2021-10-30.
  55. ↑ DErcole FJ, Dhandha VH, Levi ML, et al. (2019). "Perioperative Challenges in Patients with Alpha-Gal Allergy". J Clin Anesth Pain Manag. 3 (1): 70–78. doi:10.36959/377/330.
  56. ↑ Fichera, Angelo (30 August 2023). "No, a meat allergy caused by ticks is not tied to a Gates Foundation-funded program". AP News. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
  57. ↑ Cercone, Jeff (1 September 2023). "By Jeff Cercone September 1, 2023 No connection between Gates-funded modified ticks, meat allergy". Politifact. Poynter Institute. Retrieved 19 October 2024.

Further reading

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