User:Путеец/sandbox

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Intro-project

Homosexual behavior in animals is behavior among non-human species that is interpreted as homosexual or bisexual. Same-sex behavior (comprising courtship, sexual, pair-bonding, and parental activities) has been documented in over than 450 species worldwide, but it is in fact only a tiny fraction of the more than 1 million species, but not all species are sufficiently studied. [1] Same-sex interactions involving genital contact manifested in only a few species. In this sense humans are rare.[2] Homosexual behavior between animals is usually an expression of the dominant or subordinate role occupied by one particular individual in relation to another.[3] People are the only primate species that form homosexual couples, excluding heterosexual behavior[4]

Intro

Some of rams (males), detached from the mother and grown in same-sex flocks, without access to females, refuse to mate with ewes (females) but do readily mate with other rams. [5][6][7] A similar phenomenon was observed in mice excommunicated from the mother and grown in isolation. Short interaction with the female restored sexual behavior in them. They began to show aggression towards males and were interested in females.[8]

But it is better to remove from the intro the mention of rams!

According to Bagemihl (1999): "Same-sex behavior (comprising courtship, sexual, pair-bonding, and parental activities) has been documented in over 450 species of animals worldwide. While this may seem like a lot of animals, it is in fact only a tiny fraction of the more than 1 million species that are known to exist".[1] According to J. Michael Bailey et al. (2016): "Although same-sex interactions involving genital contact have been reported in hundreds of animal species, they are routinely manifested in only a few. In this sense humans are rare, but we are not unique."[2]

Basis

Social Basis

Isolation from females

The social environment in which male lambs are reared influences the sexual behavior of rams. Rams reared in all-male groups show little interest in females. Homosexual behavior in rams is a consequence of prolonged isolation from females and exclusive contact with males[9][10]. A similar phenomenon was observed in mice separated from the mother and grown in isolation, without any social or sexual experience. Short interaction with females restored their mating and aggressive behavior. They began to show aggression towards males and interest towards females[11]. Psychologist Harry Harlow, famous for his discoveries in the field of affective attachments, says that physical sexual gestures, such as courtship rituals or mounting behavior are laid down from birth, but how, when and with whom to use them can be learned only through social interaction[12]. The males of orangutan experience suppression of reproductive behavior in the presence of a strong male. They can not develop a full range of secondary sexual characteristics, perhaps because of social intimidation or stress, although the exact mechanism is unknown. In males that do not have contact with females, the estrogen level is higher than in males that have contact with females[13]. In a series of experiments with blond ring doves, the female was removed from the male in a sequence of gradually increasing periods. As the deprivation period increased, an object that triggered sexual response of the male became more an more unspecified: a dove of another kind, stuffed bird, rolled-up cloth and eventually the courtship was directed towards the empty corner. This is a widespread and regular phenomenon. These observations mean that after a long period of deprivation, the threshold value of stimuli eliciting sexual response sinks[14]. Bucks that were reared with females preferred contact with females than with males[15]. Adult male ruminants that were reared in contact with females display greater sexual behavior than those reared in single male groups[16].

Mistaken identification

Experiments on the artificial evolution of insects have shown that same-sex behavior occurs because men are not able to completely distinguish women from males[17][18]. Most cases can be attributed to the erroneous identification of an active male. Males are more likely to be involved in this behavior in the laboratory than in the field, and isolation, high density, and exposure to female pheromones increase its prevalence. This usually happens when the cuticle of one of the males continues to emit pheromones from the previous mating. Males often resist courtship/mating attempts[19].

Hierarchy, establishment of dominant bonds
Single-sex partnership in a disproportional number of males and females of the population
Interaction of reproductive instinct with other instincts

Primates

According to Fox: "Homosexual behavior forms part of the sexual or sociosexual repertoire of a large array of primate species. For species in which homosexual behavior is observed in the wild, its frequency of expression ranges from rare to common. In a subset of these species, homosexual behavior occurs rarely in the wild but is frequently observed in captive conspecifics. In others, the expression of homosexual behavior is limited to primates living in artificial conditions and having extensive contact with human caregivers. The contexts in which homosexual behavior occurs in wild populations support hypotheses for its functional significance in the formation and maintenance of social relationships and social support.

Humans are the only primate species in which individuals form homosexual pair bonds to the exclusion of heterosexual behavior. In other Great Apes, with the exception of the bonobo, homosexual behavior is infrequently reported from wild populations" [4]

Оrangutans

According to Fox: "Homosexual behavior was observed two times: once at Suaq Balimbing and once at Ketambe. Both interactions were between males". Anal introduction was not confirmed. Homosexual behavior in different social contexts was associated with affiliated and agonistic behavior. In one case between adults, in the second case between adolescents. According to Fox: "Previous studies of orangutans reported homosexual behavior only among captives housed in artificial conditions or, in the wild, among recent rehabilitants. Due to its solitary ranging patterns and low frequency of social interaction, the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is predicted to exhibit homosexual behavior at lower rates than any Great Ape". [4]

Ref

  1. ^ a b Bagemihl, Bruce (2000-04-10). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9781466809277.
  2. ^ a b Bailey, J. Michael; Vasey, Paul L.; Diamond, Lisa M.; Breedlove, S. Marc; Vilain, Eric; Epprecht, Marc (September 2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society. 17 (2): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. ISSN 2160-0031. PMID 27113562.
  3. ^ Sexuality // New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, том 5. — Thomson Gale, 2005. — С. 2207. «Frank Beach, for example, held that homosexual activity among animals was usually an expression of the dominant or submissive role of that particular individual animal vis-à-vis another. He cautioned, however, that the existence of homosexual behavior in some animals says little about homosexual relations in humans, that is, it could not prove that homosexuality is „biologically normal.“ The empirical evidence from animals, he felt, was irrelevant.»
  4. ^ a b c Fox, E. A. (November 2001). "Homosexual behavior in wild Sumatran orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii)". American Journal of Primatology. 55 (3): 177–181. doi:10.1002/ajp.1051. ISSN 0275-2565. PMID 11746281.
  5. ^ Resko, John A.; Perkins, Anne; Roselli, Charles E.; Fitzgerald, James A.; Choate, Jerome V.A.; Stormshak, Fredrick (1996-07-01). "Endocrine Correlates of Partner Preference Behavior in Rams1". Biology of Reproduction. 55 (1): 120–126. doi:10.1095/biolreprod55.1.120. ISSN 0006-3363.
  6. ^ "The development of male-oriented behavior in rams". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 32 (2): 164–169. 2011-04-01. doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.12.007. ISSN 0091-3022.
  7. ^ "Homosexual behavior in male goats is more frequent during breeding season and in bucks isolated from females". Hormones and Behavior. 65 (5): 516–520. 2014-05-01. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.04.013. ISSN 0018-506X.
  8. ^ Remedios, Ryan; Kennedy, Ann; Zelikowsky, Moriel; Grewe, Benjamin F.; Schnitzer, Mark J.; Anderson, David J. (2017/10). "Social behaviour shapes hypothalamic neural ensemble representations of conspecific sex". Nature. 550 (7676): 388–392. doi:10.1038/nature23885. ISSN 1476-4687. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ Ungerfeld, Rodolfo; Giriboni, Julia; Freitas-de-Melo, Aline; Lacuesta, Lorena (2014-05-01). "Homosexual behavior in male goats is more frequent during breeding season and in bucks isolated from females". Hormones and Behavior. 65 (5): 516–520. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.04.013. ISSN 0018-506X.
  10. ^ Chenoweth, P. J. (1981-08-01). "Libido and mating behavior in bulls, boars and rams. A review". Theriogenology. 16 (2): 155–177. doi:10.1016/0093-691X(81)90098-4. ISSN 0093-691X.
  11. ^ Anderson, David J.; Schnitzer, Mark J.; Benjamin F. Grewe; Zelikowsky, Moriel; Kennedy, Ann; Remedios, Ryan (2017-10). "Social behaviour shapes hypothalamic neural ensemble representations of conspecific sex". Nature. 550 (7676): 388–392. doi:10.1038/nature23885. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 5674977. PMID 29052632. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  12. ^ Karlen, Arno (March 1977). Sexuality and Homosexuality: A New View. Bookthrift Co. ISBN 9789991424477.
  13. ^ Bagemihl, Bruce (2000-04-10). Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9781466809277.
  14. ^ Lorenz, Konrad (2002). On Aggression. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415283205.
  15. ^ Lacuesta, Lorena; Giriboni, Julia; Orihuela, Agustín; Ungerfeld, Rodolfo (2018-05-01). "Bucks reared in close contact with adult does prefer to interact with females than with males". Small Ruminant Research. 162: 22–24. doi:10.1016/j.smallrumres.2017.11.006. ISSN 0921-4488.
  16. ^ Lacuesta, L.; Orihuela, A.; Ungerfeld, R. (2015-01-01). "Reproductive development of male goat kids reared with or without permanent contact with adult females until 10 months of age". Theriogenology. 83 (1): 139–143. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.09.001. ISSN 0093-691X. {{cite journal}}: no-break space character in |title= at position 112 (help)
  17. ^ "ScienceDirect". www.sciencedirect.com. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.03.004. Retrieved 2019-03-16.
  18. ^ Sales, Kris; Trent, Thomas; Gardner, Jessie; Lumley, Alyson J.; Vasudeva, Ramakrishnan; Michalczyk, Łukasz; Martin, Oliver Y.; Gage, Matthew J. G. (2018-05-01). "Experimental evolution with an insect model reveals that male homosexual behaviour occurs due to inaccurate mate choice". Animal Behaviour. 139: 51–59. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.03.004. ISSN 0003-3472.
  19. ^ Scharf, Inon; Martin, Oliver Y. (2013-11-01). "Same-sex sexual behavior in insects and arachnids: prevalence, causes, and consequences". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 67 (11): 1719–1730. doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1610-x. ISSN 1432-0762.
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