User:Hana.pasic/sandbox

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I will be editing the section on "Occupational Sexism" by contributing to the "Wage discrimination" (making it represent a more worldly view), "Possible causes" (of wage discrimination) and "Glass ceiling" parts of this section, as well as adding a paragraph to the Gender stereotypes section.

Adding to Gender Stereotypes section: Tokenism - Research shows that women who enter predominantly male work groups often “experience the negative consequences of tokenism: performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation”[1] . However, attributing these negative consequences to tokenism itself might camouflage their root cause: sexism, “and its manifestations in higher-status men’s attempts to preserve their advantage in the workplace”[2]. Furthermore, there has been no causal link proven between the number of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their conditions of employment (even worse, having an increasing number of women in a work place without appropriately addressing the “sexist attitudes imbedded in male-dominated organizations, may exacerbate women’s occupational problems”)[3].

Adding to the Wage Gap section (after the sentence: "When the first Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 58.9 percent as much as male full-time workers"): Research conducted in the Czech and Slovak Republics shows that, even after the governments have passed anti-discrimination legislation, two thirds of the gender gap in wages remained unexplained and segregation continued to “represent a major source of the gap”[4]. The gender gap can also vary across-occupation and within occupation. In Taiwan, for example, studies show how the bulk of gender wage discrepancies occur within-occupation[5]. In Russia, research shows that the gender wage gap is distributed unevenly across income levels, and that it mainly occurs at the lower end of income distribution[6]. Interestingly though, the research also finds that “wage arrears and payment in-kind attenuated wage discrimination, particularly amongst the lowest paid workers, suggesting that Russian enterprise managers assigned lowest importance to equity considerations when allocating these forms of payment”[7].

Adding after the sentence "Women interrupt their careers to take on child-rearing responsibilities more frequently than men.": In Korea, for example, it has been a long-established practice to lay-off female employers upon marriage.[8]

Possible Causes for Wage Discrimination

Adding: There is considerable agreement that gender wage discrimination exists, however, when it comes to estimating its magnitude, significant discrepancies are visible. A meta-regression analysis concludes that "the estimated gender gap has been steadily declining" and that the wage rate calculation is proven to be crucial in estimating the wage gap. [9] The analysis further notes that excluding experience and failing to correct for selection bias from analysis might also bring to incorrect conclusions.

Glass Ceiling

Replacing the existing text with the following:

“The popular notion of glass ceiling effects implies that gender (or other) disadvantages are stronger at the top of the hierarchy than at lower levels and that these disadvantages become worse later in a person's career.”[10] In the United States, women account for 47 percent of the overall labor force, and yet they make up only 6 % of corporate CEOs and top executives[11]. Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), as well as “the historic absence of women in top positions”, which “may lead to hysteresis, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors”[12]. The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women of colour (according to a report, “women of colour perceive a ‘concrete ceiling’ and not simply a glass ceiling)[13]. In the economics profession, it has been observed (Singell et all, 1996) that women are more inclined than men to dedicate their time to teaching and service . Since continuous research work is crucial for promotion, “the cumulative effect of small, contemporaneous differences in research orientation could generate the observed significant gender difference in promotion”[14]. In the high-tech industry, research shows that, regardless of the intra-firm changes, “extra-organizational pressures will likely contribute to continued gender stratification as firms upgrade, leading to the potential masculinization of skilled high-tech work”[15].

Keeping the sentence: The United Nations asserts that "progress in bringing women into leadership and decision making positions around the world remains far too slow."

Potential remedies

One research suggests that a possible remedy to the glass ceiling could be increasing the number of women on corporate boards, which could subsequently lead to increases in the number of women working in top management positions[16]. The same research suggests that this could also result in a “feedback cycle in which the presence of more female managers increases the qualified pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to greater female board membership and then further increases in female executives”[17].

References
  1. ^ Janice D. Yoder (1991): Rethinking Tokenism: Looking beyond Numbers. Gender and Society, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Jun., 1991), pp. 178-192 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
  2. ^ Ibid.
  3. ^ Lynn Zimmer (1988): Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory. Social Problems, Vol. 35, No. 1 (Feb., 1988), pp. 64-77.Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems.
  4. ^ Štěpán Jurajda (2005): Gender Segregation and Wage Gap: An East-West Comparison.Journal of the European Economic Association, Vol. 3, No. 2/3, Papers and Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Congress of the European Economic Association (Apr. - May, 2005), pp. 598-607 Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of European Economic Association.
  5. ^ Joseph E. Zveglich, Jr. and Yana van der Meulen Rodgers (2004): Occupational Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap in a Dynamic East Asian Economy. Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 70, No. 4 (Apr., 2004), pp. 850-875 Published by: Southern Economic Association.
  6. ^ Christopher J. Gerry, Byung-Yeon Kim and Carmen A. Li (2004): The Gender Wage Gap and Wage Arrears in Russia: Evidence from the RLMS. Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 17, No. 2 (Jun., 2004), pp. 267-288 Published by: Springer.
  7. ^ Ibid.
  8. ^ Gyeongjoon Yoo (2003): Women in the Workplace: Gender and Wage Differentials. Social Indicators Research, Vol. 62/63, The Quality of Life in Korea: Comparative and Dynamic Perspectives (Apr., 2003), pp. 365, 367-385 Published by: Springer.
  9. ^ T.D.Stanley and Stephen B. Jarrell: Gender Wage Discrimination Bias? A Meta-Regression Analysis. The Journal of Human Resources, Vol XXXIII,4. P. 67.
  10. ^ David A. Cotter, Joan M. Hermsen, Seth Ovadia and Reeve Vanneman (2001): The Glass Ceiling Effect. Social Forces, Vol. 80, No. 2 (Dec., 2001), pp. 655-681 Published by: Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ David A. Matsa and Amalia R. Miller (2011): Chipping away at the Glass Ceiling: Gender Spillovers in Corporate Leadership. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 2011, 101:3, 635–639.
  12. ^ Ibid.
  13. ^ Ibid.
  14. ^ John M. McDowell, Larry D. Singell, Jr., and James P. Ziliak (1999): Cracks in the Glass Ceiling: Gender and Promotion in the Economics Profession. The American Economic Review, Vol. 89, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the One Hundred Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May, 1999), pp. 392-396 Published by: American Economic Association.
  15. ^ Steven C. McKay (2006): Hard Drives and Glass Ceilings: Gender Stratification in High-Tech Production. Gender and Society, Vol. 20, No. 2, Apr 2006, pp 207 – 235. Published by Sage Publications, Inc.
  16. ^ David A. Matsa and Amalia R. Miller (2011): Chipping away at the Glass Ceiling: Gender Spillovers in Corporate Leadership. American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 2011, 101:3, 635–639.
  17. ^ Ibid.
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