1978 Soviet nuclear tests

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See also: List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union

1978
Nuclear blast animation
Information
CountrySoviet Union
Test siteAtyrau, Kazakhstan; Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Khanty-Mansi, Russia; Krasnoyarsk, Russia; NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia; Sakha, Russia; Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan
Period1978
Number of tests31
Test typeunderground shaft, tunnel
Max. yield180 kilotonnes of TNT (750 TJ)
Test series chronology
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The Soviet Union's 1978 nuclear test series[1] was a group of 31 nuclear tests conducted in 1978. These tests [note 1] followed the 1977 Soviet nuclear tests series and preceded the 1979 Soviet nuclear tests series.

Soviet Union's 1978 series tests and detonations
Name [note 2] Date time (UT) Local time zone[note 3][2] Location[note 4] Elevation + height [note 5] Delivery, [note 6]
Purpose [note 7] 		Device[note 8] Yield[note 9] Fallout[note 10] References Notes
481 19 March 1978 03:46:59.82 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 2691 49°48′22″N 78°07′01″E / 49.80621°N 78.11687°E / 49.80621; 78.11687 (481) 460 m (1,510 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		13 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
482 – 1 26 March 1978 03:56:59.96 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E / 49.7643; 77.9993 (482 - 1) 704 m (2,310 ft) – 260 m (850 ft) tunnel,
weapons development 		30 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
482 – 2 26 March 1978 03:57:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E / 49.7643; 77.9993 (482 - 2) 704 m (2,310 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
483 – 1 22 April 1978 03:07:00.01 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E / 49.7469; 78.1251 (483 - 1) 579 m (1,900 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		20 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
483 – 2 22 April 1978 03:07:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E / 49.7469; 78.1251 (483 - 2) 579 m (1,900 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
483 – 3 22 April 1978 03:07:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 204 49°44′49″N 78°07′30″E / 49.7469°N 78.1251°E / 49.7469; 78.1251 (483 - 3) 579 m (1,900 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
484 24 May 1978 03:07:00 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 185p 49°44′50″N 78°03′29″E / 49.74721°N 78.05809°E / 49.74721; 78.05809 (484) 394 m (1,293 ft) + tunnel,
safety experiment 		1000 kg [1][3][5][6][7]
485 29 May 1978 04:56:59.85 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 133p 49°47′55″N 78°06′08″E / 49.7986°N 78.1022°E / 49.7986; 78.1022 (485) 686 m (2,251 ft) + tunnel,
weapon effect 		3 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
486 2 June 1978 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 185-pp 49°44′54″N 78°03′36″E / 49.74828°N 78.06006°E / 49.74828; 78.06006 (486) 394 m (1,293 ft) + tunnel,
safety experiment 		1000 kg [1][3][5][6][7]
487 11 June 1978 02:57:00.14 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1010 49°54′51″N 78°48′04″E / 49.91406°N 78.80121°E / 49.91406; 78.80121 (487) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		58 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
488 5 July 1978 02:47:00.05 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1077 49°54′14″N 78°51′59″E / 49.90376°N 78.86647°E / 49.90376; 78.86647 (488) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		87 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
489 – 1 28 July 1978 02:46:59.89 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E / 49.7488; 78.0893 (489 - 1) 623 m (2,044 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		60 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
489 – 2 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E / 49.7488; 78.0893 (489 - 2) 623 m (2,044 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
489 – 3 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E / 49.7488; 78.0893 (489 - 3) 623 m (2,044 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
489 – 4 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E / 49.7488; 78.0893 (489 - 4) 623 m (2,044 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
489 – 5 28 July 1978 02:46:59.9 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 104 49°44′56″N 78°05′21″E / 49.7488°N 78.0893°E / 49.7488; 78.0893 (489 - 5) 623 m (2,044 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
490 Kraton 4 (Craton) 9 August 1978 18:00:00.8 YAKT (9 hrs)
 Sakha, Russia: KR-4 63°40′41″N 125°31′19″E / 63.678°N 125.522°E / 63.678; 125.522 (490 Kraton 4 (Craton)) – 560 m (1,840 ft) underground shaft,
seismic sounding 		22 kt [1][4][5][6][7] Seismic probing program.
491 – 1 10 August 1978 07:59:57.93 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 1) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		180 kt [1][4][5][6][8]
491 – 2 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 2) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
491 – 3 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 3) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
491 – 4 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 4) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
491 – 5 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 5) 100 m (330 ft) – 500 m (1,600 ft) tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield Venting detected on site, 70 Ci (2,600 GBq) [1][5][6][7][9]
491 – 6 10 August 1978 07:59:57.9 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-18 73°17′28″N 54°52′59″E / 73.291°N 54.883°E / 73.291; 54.883 (491 - 6) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
fundamental science 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
492 Kraton 3 (Craton) 24 August 1978 18:00:00.4 YAKT (9 hrs)
 Sakha, Russia: KR-3 65°55′30″N 112°20′17″E / 65.925°N 112.338°E / 65.925; 112.338 (492 Kraton 3 (Craton)) – 577 m (1,893 ft) underground shaft,
seismic sounding 		22 kt Venting detected [1][4][5][6][7]
493 – 1 29 August 1978 02:36:59.95 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E / 49.8074; 78.1091 (493 - 1) 770 m (2,530 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		14 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
493 – 2 29 August 1978 02:37:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E / 49.8074; 78.1091 (493 - 2) 770 m (2,530 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
493 – 3 29 August 1978 02:37:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 107 49°48′27″N 78°06′33″E / 49.8074°N 78.1091°E / 49.8074; 78.1091 (493 - 3) 770 m (2,530 ft) + tunnel,
safety experiment 		1000 kg [1][3][5][6][7]
494 29 August 1978 02:37:08.75 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1228 50°00′35″N 78°58′00″E / 50.00965°N 78.96669°E / 50.00965; 78.96669 (494) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		119 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
495 Galit A2.4 (Halite) 12 September 1978 04:59:58.5 SHET (5 hrs)
 Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-II-5 47°54′32″N 47°54′43″E / 47.909°N 47.912°E / 47.909; 47.912 (495 Galit A2.4 (Halite)) – 600 m (2,000 ft) underground shaft,
industrial 		80 t [1][5][6][7][9] Create reservoirs for gas storage. A fizzle.
496 15 September 1978 02:36:59.97 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1211 49°55′46″N 78°51′41″E / 49.92944°N 78.8614°E / 49.92944; 78.8614 (496) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		81 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
497 20 September 1978 05:03:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 605p 49°47′36″N 78°08′41″E / 49.7934°N 78.1447°E / 49.7934; 78.1447 (497) 660 m (2,170 ft) + tunnel,
weapon effect 		1.1 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
498 Kraton 2 (Craton) 21 September 1978 15:00:00.2 KRAT (7 hrs)
 Krasnoyarsk, Russia: KR-2 66°35′53″N 86°12′36″E / 66.598°N 86.21°E / 66.598; 86.21 (498 Kraton 2 (Craton)) – 890 m (2,920 ft) underground shaft,
seismic sounding 		15 kt [1][4][5][6][7] Seismic probing program.
499 – 1 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 1) 100 m (330 ft) – 350 m (1,150 ft) tunnel,
weapons development 		60 kt [1][4][5][6][8]
499 – 2 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 2) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
499 – 3 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 3) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
499 – 4 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 4) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
499 – 5 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 5) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
499 – 6 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 6) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][5][6][7][9]
499 – 7 27 September 1978 02:04:58.6 MSK (3 hrs)
 NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-19 73°20′56″N 54°40′34″E / 73.349°N 54.676°E / 73.349; 54.676 (499 - 7) 100 m (330 ft) + tunnel,
safety experiment 		1000 kg [1][5][6][7][9]
500 Vyatka (Neva) 8 October 1978 00:00:?? YAKT (9 hrs)
 Sakha, Russia: 43 61°33′N 112°51′E / 61.55°N 112.85°E / 61.55; 112.85 (500 Vyatka (Neva)) – 1,545 m (5,069 ft) underground shaft,
oil stimulation 		15 kt [1][4][5][6][7]
501 15 October 1978 05:37:00.14 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 200ASM 49°44′22″N 78°06′46″E / 49.7395°N 78.1127°E / 49.7395; 78.1127 (501) 645 m (2,116 ft) + tunnel,
weapon effect 		12 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
502 Galit A7 (Halite) – 1 17 October 1978 04:59:59.1 SHET (5 hrs)
 Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VII 47°50′48″N 48°07′14″E / 47.84661°N 48.12042°E / 47.84661; 48.12042 (502 Galit A7 (Halite) - 1) – 1,040 m (3,410 ft) underground shaft,
cavity excavation 		56 kt [1][3][4][5][6] Create reservoirs for gas storage.
502 Galit A7 (Halite) – 2 17 October 1978 04:59:59.1 SHET (5 hrs)
 Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VII 47°50′48″N 48°07′14″E / 47.84661°N 48.12042°E / 47.84661; 48.12042 (502 Galit A7 (Halite) - 2) + underground shaft,
cavity excavation 		18 kt [1][3][5][6][7] Create reservoirs for gas storage.
503 Kraton 1 (Craton) 17 October 1978 14:00:00.2 SVET (5 hrs)
 Khanty-Mansi, Russia: KR-1 63°11′06″N 63°25′55″E / 63.185°N 63.432°E / 63.185; 63.432 (503 Kraton 1 (Craton)) – 593 m (1,946 ft) underground shaft,
seismic sounding 		22 kt [1][4][5][6][7] Seismic probing program.
504 31 October 1978 04:17:00.19 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 194 49°47′15″N 78°05′51″E / 49.7875°N 78.0974°E / 49.7875; 78.0974 (504) 638 m (2,093 ft) + tunnel,
fundamental science 		16 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
505 – 1 4 November 1978 05:05:59.86 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1302 50°02′49″N 78°56′47″E / 50.04706°N 78.94626°E / 50.04706; 78.94626 (505 - 1) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		44 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
505 – 2 4 November 1978 05:05:59.9 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1302 50°02′30″N 78°56′50″E / 50.04167°N 78.94722°E / 50.04167; 78.94722 (505 - 2) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][10]
506 – 1 29 November 1978 04:33:00.17 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1222 49°57′17″N 78°47′38″E / 49.95472°N 78.79395°E / 49.95472; 78.79395 (506 - 1) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		101 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
506 – 2 29 November 1978 04:33:00.2 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1222 49°57′17″N 78°47′38″E / 49.95472°N 78.79395°E / 49.95472; 78.79395 (506 - 2) 330 m (1,080 ft) + underground shaft,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
507 29 November 1978 04:33:04.99 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 162 49°46′57″N 78°00′26″E / 49.7826°N 78.0073°E / 49.7826; 78.0073 (507) 750 m (2,460 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		110 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
508 Galit A2.5 (Halite) 30 November 1978 07:59:59.1 SHET (5 hrs)
 Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-II-6 47°54′32″N 47°54′43″E / 47.909°N 47.912°E / 47.909; 47.912 (508 Galit A2.5 (Halite)) – 600 m (2,000 ft) underground shaft,
industrial 		6 t [1][5][6][7][9] Create reservoirs for gas storage. A fizzle.
509 14 December 1978 04:43:00.03 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 113p 49°48′22″N 78°06′12″E / 49.8061°N 78.1034°E / 49.8061; 78.1034 (509) 768 m (2,520 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		4 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
510 Galit A9 (Halite) 18 December 1978 07:59:58.5 SHET (5 hrs)
 Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-IX 47°51′25″N 48°09′39″E / 47.85689°N 48.16091°E / 47.85689; 48.16091 (510 Galit A9 (Halite)) – 630 m (2,070 ft) underground shaft,
cavity excavation 		103 kt [1][4][5][6][7] Create reservoirs for gas storage.
511 – 1 20 December 1978 04:33:00.04 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 803p 49°48′39″N 78°03′15″E / 49.81083°N 78.05417°E / 49.81083; 78.05417 (511 - 1) 722 m (2,369 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		3.5 kt [1][3][4][5][6]
511 – 2 20 December 1978 04:33:00.0 ALMT (6 hrs)
 Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 803p 49°48′39″N 78°03′15″E / 49.81083°N 78.05417°E / 49.81083; 78.05417 (511 - 2) 722 m (2,369 ft) + tunnel,
weapons development 		unknown yield [1][3][5][6][7]
  1. ^ A bomb test may be a salvo test, defined as two or more explosions "where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points and does not exceed 40 kilometers in length". Mikhailov, V. N. "Catalog of World Wide Nuclear Testing". Begell-Atom, LLC. Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 18 December 2013. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
  3. ^ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. Historical time zone data obtained from the IANA time zone database.
  4. ^ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
  5. ^ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
  6. ^ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
  7. ^ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
  8. ^ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
  9. ^ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
  10. ^ Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd Yang, Xiaoping; North, Robert; Romney, Carl (August 2000). CMR Nuclear Explosion Database (Revision 3) (Technical report). SMDC Monitoring Research.
  2. ^ "Time Zone Historical Database". iana.com. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Khalturin, Vitaly I.; Rautian, Tatyana G.; Richards, Paul G. (2000). "Chemical explosions during 1961-1989 on the Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan" (PDF). Pure and Applied Geophysics. 158: 143–171. doi:10.1007/pl00001153. S2CID 128953780. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Cochran, Thomas B.; Arkin, William M.; Norris, Robert S.; Sands, Jeffrey I. Nuclear Weapons Databook Vol. IV: Soviet Nuclear Weapons. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc Podvig, Pavel, ed. (2001). Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262661812. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc USSR Nuclear Weapons Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions 1949 through 1990. Sarov, Russia: RFNC-VNIIEF. 1996. The official Russian list of Soviet tests.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag Nuclear explosions in the USSR: The North Test Site reference material, version 4 (PDF) (Technical report). IAEA Dept. of Nuclear Safety and Security. 1 December 2004. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  8. ^ a b Kim, Won-Young; Richards, Paul G.; Andrushkin, Vitaly; Ovtchinnikov, Vladimir (1 April 2001). Borovoye digital seismogram archive for underground nuclear tests during 1966–1996 (PDF) (Technical report). LDEO. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Andrushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (1 September 2001). The containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions (PDF) (Open File Report 01-312). USGS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
  10. ^ Thurber, Clifford; Trabant, Chad; Haslinger, Florian; Hartog, Renate (2001). Nuclear explosion locations at the Balapan, Kazakhstan, nuclear test site: the effects of high-precision arrival times and three-dimensional structure. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors (Technical report). Vol. 123. pp. 283–301. doi:10.1016/s0031-9201(00)00215-6. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
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