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No evidence has shown that e-cigarettes are safe to use for pregnant women.[1] No amount of nicotine is safe for pregnant women.[1] The risks of vaping e-cigarettes during pregnancy are largely unknown.[2] E-cigarette use during pregnancy can be harmful to the fetus.[3] Several ingredients used in e-liquids have not been studied for use during pregnancy for safety.[1]

Nicotine exposure during pregnancy is extremely harmful to the fetus.[4] Nicotine is also a health danger for pregnant people.[5] Prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with adverse effects on the growing fetus, including effects to normal growth of the endocrine, reproductive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurologic systems.[1] Nicotine has been found in breast milk.[6] Nicotine-free e-cigarette aerosols may cause harm to the fetus.[2]

The belief that e-cigarettes are safer than traditional cigarettes could increase their use in pregnant women.[7] Concerns exist regarding pregnant women exposure to e-cigarette vapor through direct use or via exhaled vapor.[8] According to a 2017 review, the evidence that nicotine harms infant development justifies the need for public health initiatives to shield pregnant women from being exposed to nicotine.[9]

Overview

Relative safety

The following information is presented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on e-cigarettes and pregnancy. It reads: Are e-cigarettes safer than regular cigarettes in pregnancy? Although the aerosol of e-cigarettes generally has fewer harmful substances than cigarette smoke, e-cigarettes and other products containing nicotine are not safe to use during pregnancy. Nicotine is a health danger for pregnant women and developing babies and can damage a developing baby’s brain and lungs. Also, some of the flavorings used in e-cigarettes may be harmful to a developing baby.
Information presented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on e-cigarettes and pregnancy[10]

No evidence has shown that e-cigarettes are safe to use for pregnant women.[1] Some earlier research suggested that e-cigarette use is less risky to pregnancy outcomes, but more newer research refute these findings.[11] No amount of nicotine is safe for pregnant women.[1]

The risks of vaping e-cigarettes during pregnancy are largely unknown.[2] As of 2015, the long-term issues of e-cigarettes on both mother and unborn baby are unknown.[12] Being exposed over a long period of time to e-cigarette vapors may raise the possibility of unfavorable reproductive outcomes.[13]

Overall health effects

E-cigarette use during pregnancy can be harmful to the fetus.[3] Some studies suggest that e-cigarette exposure not only has a negative impact on one's reproductive health but also on the offspring when exposed to e-cigarette components in utero.[14] There was a trend towards lower fertility in male offspring and lower body weight and length in all offspring.[14] These findings suggest a hypothetical toxicity of e-cigarette exposure on an in utero developing fetus.[14] Neonatal exposure to e-cigarette induced altered lung growth, weight gain with significant and persistent behavioral alterations.[14] This raises the question of the potential impact of e-cigarettes on non-users that are passively exposed to the vapor during pregnancy.[14]

In what way the e-liquid ingredients could affect a fetus is unknown.[15] Several ingredients used in e-liquids have not been studied for use during pregnancy for safety.[1] Studies examining the cytotoxicity of e-liquid flavorings found toxicity to be greater in undifferentiated embryonic stem cells relative to human pulmonary fibroblasts, raising potential concerns about exposure risks for pregnant women.[16] There are concerns about the health impacts of pediatric exposure to second-hand and third-hand e-cigarette vapor.[17]

Prenatal exposure to nicotine and other chemicals

Nicotine exposure during pregnancy is extremely harmful to the fetus.[4] Nicotine seems to be more harmful to the growing fetus during the latter stage of pregnancy.[1] The rate of e-cigarette use among pregnant adolescents is unknown, but the effects of nicotine and the potential for harm by other e-cigarette toxicants indicate that the use of e-cigarettes is a fetal risk factor among pregnant adolescent girls.[18] Since e-cigarettes are not substantiated as cessation tools, may contain nicotine at inconsistent levels and added ingredients that are possibly harmful, to bear with e-cigarettes to be used among pregnant women to decrease smoking puts this group at considerable risk.[19]

Nicotine accumulates in the fetus because it goes through the placenta.[20] Nicotine has been found in placental tissue as early as seven weeks of embryonic gestation, and nicotine concentrations are higher in fetal fluids than in maternal fluids.[18] It also attaches to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the fetus brain.[9] When the brain is being developed, activating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors by nicotine can result in long-term developmental turmoil.[9]

Nicotine can induce a genotoxic effect in fetal cells.[21] Exposure of pregnant females to nicotine can lead to an altered inflammatory environment during gestation, which may have consequences on fetal hematopoiesis.[22] Moreover, it is yet unknown whether this is caused directly by nicotine in the fetal environment or by passage of maternal nicotine-induced inflammatory cytokines to the fetus during development.[22] It is unknown whether nicotine leads to transient or persisting alterations in developmental hematopoiesis.[22]

Although there is a scarcity of studies examining the birth results in mothers who vape nicotine while pregnant, a 2015 study in the UK found a noticeable increase in respiratory anomalies in mothers who used nicotine replacement products in contrast to mother who did not use these products.[23]

Nicotine is a health danger for pregnant people.[5] Prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with adverse effects on the growing fetus, including effects to normal growth of the endocrine, reproductive, respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurologic systems.[1] Prenatal nicotine exposure has been associated with dysregulation of catecholaminergic, serotonergic, and other neurotransmitter systems.[18] Prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with lower birth weights compared to other infants,[1] preterm birth,[24] stillbirth,[24], and sudden infant death syndrome.[1]

When birth weight is normal there still can be damage.[9] Nicotine may result in premature birth, miscarriage, fetal neurotoxicity, and fetal lung development issues.[25] Nicotine delivered by e-cigarettes during pregnancy can result in multiple adverse consequences, including sudden infant death syndrome, and could result in altered corpus callosum and deficits in auditory processing.[18] One study found that infants with prenatal exposure to e-cigarettes exhibited increased irritability than those whose mothers did not smoke at all during pregnancy.[6] Prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with asthma and wheezing which may continue into adulthood.[1]

Prenatal non-nicotine effects

Nicotine-free e-cigarette aerosols may cause harm to the fetus.[2]

Health effects on brain development

There is an increasing amount of research on the negative effects of nicotine on prenatal brain development.[26] Prenatal nicotine exposure is associated with alterations to normal brain development.[1] A 2014 Surgeon General report found "that nicotine adversely affects maternal and fetal health during pregnancy, and that exposure to nicotine during fetal development has lasting adverse consequences for brain development."[27] The toxic effects identified with e-cigarette refill liquids on stem cells may be interpreted as embryonic death or birth defects.[7]

Health effects on infant lung function

There is growing evidence that exposure of pregnant women to e-cigarettes may impair placental function and may result in fetal structural abnormalities.[2] Specifically, this may cause physio-pathologic changes in the developing lung, which in turn may impair respiratory health later in life.[2]

Vaping during pregnancy resulted in a reduction in lung volume.[28] Vaping during pregnancy could impact lung pathophysiology as well as function in infants.[29]

Evidence from animal studies indicate that being exposed to second-hand vapor containing nicotine during pregnancy may impede fetal lung development.[30] In a 2020 study, the effects of cinnamon-flavor exposure in Balb/c pregnant mice and their offspring showed that preconception flavor exposure increases lung tissue fraction at birth compared to non-exposed groups, suggesting that cinnamaldehyde may be teratogenic.[31] Low amounts of aldehydes can still be a health concern among pregnant women.[32]

Other effects

Gestational age nicotine exposure is associated with many neurological deficits.[1] Prenatal exposure has been associated with obesity, diabetes, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure in minors.[33] Prenatal nicotine exposure in females may lead toward early menarche.[1] An infant was born with necrotizing enterocolitis due to e-cigarette use during pregnancy.[34]

Breastfeeding

There is a lack of research on the use of e-cigarettes during breastfeeding.[6] For this reason, using e-cigarettes during breastfeeding is discouraged.[6] The consequences of vaping on infants feeding on breast milk is uncertain.[35] Nicotine has been found in breast milk.[6] Infant heart rate and blood pressure fluctuations are linked to higher nicotine levels in breast milk.[6]

It is discouraged for pregnant and breastfeeding females to substitute cigarettes with e-cigarettes.[35] It is also discouraged to use e-cigarettes while breastfeeding infants or young children.[35] There is concern for breastfeeding females using e-cigarettes, due to the lack of data on propylene glycol transferring to breast milk.[36]

Dual users

Using both (smoking and vaping) during pregnancy may result in higher exposure to nicotine.[37] Dual users (smoking and vaping) in pregnancy have higher odds of giving birth to a small-for-gestational-age child than with exclusive smoking of conventional cigarettes according to two 2019 studies and a 2020 study found higher incidence of birthweight (below 10th percentile) and a higher rate of admission to a neonatal intensive care unit in offspring of dual users than in offspring of exclusive smoking of conventional cigarettes.[38]

However, the latter study also found the same birthweight, Apgar score, and gestation at delivery in offspring of dual users as in offspring of exclusive smoking of conventional cigarettes, and another study in 2016 found that dual users had the same (elevated) risk of small-for-gestational-age and preterm birth as exclusive smoking of conventional cigarettes.[38] Furthermore, a very large cohort study in 2021 of young women found a lower but not significantly different fecundability ratio in dual users than in exclusive smoking of conventional cigarettes.[38]

Public perception

The belief that e-cigarettes are safer than traditional cigarettes could increase their use in pregnant women.[7]

Multigenerational effects

Figure 1.[39] Experimental Design to Analyze Effects of Developmental Nicotine Exposure (DNE) on Epigenetic Factors Over Two Generations[39] Nicotine-exposed female mice (F0) were mated with unexposed male mice. Epigenetic factors in certain brain areas of their first-generation (F1) and second-generation (F2) offspring were compared with those in F1 offspring of control mice not exposed to nicotine.[39] Red arrows indicate the animals studied.[39]
Figure 2.[39] Nicotine Exposure of Female Mice Alters Epigenetic Factors in First-Generation (F1) and Second-Generation (F2) Offspring[39] Epigenetic factor levels in F1 (left panel) and F2 (right panel) offspring of nicotine-exposed mice were compared with F1 offspring of control mice.[39] The color scale indicates the relative percent increase (green) or decrease (red) of each factor in each brain region. FCX = frontal cortex; STR = striatum; HIPP = hippocampus; *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001.[39]

The multigenerational epigenetic effect of nicotine on lung function has been demonstrated.[40] Vaping or the use of any nicotine-based product during pregnancy or during pregnancy and during the breastfeeding, postpartum period causes the "concurrent exposure of three generations to nicotine".[41]

In 2020, mice that were exposed to nicotine during early development and their offspring showed changes in the levels of epigenetic factors that regulate gene expression in certain brain regions.[39] The observed changes were consistent with altered patterns of epigenetic modifications seen in mice and humans with neurological and behavioral disorders.[39] Epigenetic changes can persist for generations after nicotine exposure.[39] It remains unclear how nicotine exposure elicits changes in epigenetic factor levels and how these changes are passed on across generations.[39]

Maternal smoking of traditional cigarettes and maternal vaping of e-cigarettes during pregnancy exposes the fetus to nicotine; developmental nicotine exposure (DNE) can harm the baby's brain development and has been linked to disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism, and schizophrenia in children.[39] Of particular concern, animal model studies of maternal and grandmaternal cigarette smoking or vaping nicotine show that DNE is associated with behavioral and neurological changes that can persist across multiple generations.[39]

A 2020 National Institute on Drug Abuse-funded study by Jordan M. Buck and colleagues at the University of Colorado has identified a mechanism that may be responsible for this intergenerational transmission.[39] The researchers focused on epigenetic changes—chemical modifications of the DNA and associated proteins that influence gene expression.[39] "Our findings imply that epigenetic perturbations may constitute a nexus for intergenerational transmission of DNE-induced neurodevelopmental deficits," says Buck.[39]

Vaping cessation

There are resources available to help pregnant women quit using e-cigarettes (and tobacco cigarettes).[6] For example, one can consult a healthcare provider in regard to quitting.[6] One can also get cost-free advice, support, and referrals by calling the Smoker’s Quitline at 1-800-QUIT-NOW (1-800-784-8669) in the US.[6] Although Smoker’s Quitline primarily addresses tobacco cigarettes, they can also offer assistance for e-cigarettes, as both contain the addictive chemical nicotine.[6]

Since the majority of e-cigarettes, like Juul, contain nicotine, and considering the teratogenic effects of nicotine on the growing fetus, a 2020 review recommends it is best to refrain from using them while pregnant.[37]

E-liquids contain various substances whose safety for pregnant women has not been established.[1] A 2012 study examined a variety of refill e-liquids and determined that, with the exception of one flavor, all were toxic to human embryonic stem cells.[1] Due to these findings, a 2016 review concluded that it is inadvisable to endorse the use of e-cigarettes during pregnancy.[1]

Smoking cessation

The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends that expecting mothers who smoke to use only behavioral interventions to quit smoking.[35]

Public health debate

Concerns exist regarding pregnant women exposure to e-cigarette vapor through direct use or via exhaled vapor.[8] According to a 2017 review, the evidence that nicotine harms infant development justifies the need for public health initiatives to shield pregnant women from being exposed to nicotine.[9]

See also

References

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Bibliography

External links