Timeline of the history of genetics

From WikiProjectMed
Jump to navigation Jump to search

The history of genetics can be represented on a timeline of events from the earliest work in the 1850s, to the DNA era starting in the 1940s, and the genomics era beginning in the 1970s.

Early timeline

The DNA era

The genomics era

In 1972, the first gene was sequenced: the gene for bacteriophage MS2 coat protein (3 chains in different colours).
  • 1972: Walter Fiers and his team were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for bacteriophage MS2 coat protein.[46]
  • 1976: Walter Fiers and his team determine the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA.[47]
  • 1976: Yeast genes expressed in E. coli for the first time.[48]
  • 1977: DNA is sequenced for the first time by Fred Sanger, Walter Gilbert, and Allan Maxam working independently. Sanger's lab sequence the entire genome of bacteriophage Φ-X174.[49][50][51]
  • In the late 1970s: nonisotopic methods of nucleic acid labeling were developed. The subsequent improvements in the detection of reporter molecules using immunocytochemistry and immunofluorescence, in conjunction with advances in fluorescence microscopy and image analysis, have made the technique safer, faster and reliable.
  • 1980: Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger developed methods of mapping the structure of DNA. In 1972, recombinant DNA molecules were produced in Paul Berg's Stanford University laboratory. Berg was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for constructing recombinant DNA molecules that contained phage lambda genes inserted into the small circular DNA mol.[52]
  • 1980: Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer received first U.S. patent for gene cloning, by proving the successful outcome of cloning a plasmid and expressing a foreign gene in bacteria to produce a "protein foreign to a unicellular organism." These two scientist were able to replicate proteins such as HGH, Erythropoietin and Insulin. The patent earned about $300 million in licensing royalties for Stanford.[53]
  • 1982: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the release of the first genetically engineered human insulin, originally biosynthesized using recombination DNA methods by Genentech in 1978.[54] Once approved, the cloning process lead to mass production of humulin (under license by Eli Lilly & Co.).
  • 1983: Kary Banks Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction enabling the easy amplification of DNA.[55]
  • 1983: Barbara McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of mobile genetic elements. McClintock studied transposon-mediated mutation and chromosome breakage in maize and published her first report in 1948 on transposable elements or transposons. She found that transposons were widely observed in corn, although her ideas weren't widely granted attention until the 1960s and 1970s when the same phenomenon was discovered in bacteria and Drosophila melanogaster.[56]
  • Display of VNTR allele lengths on a chromatogram, a technology used in DNA fingerprinting
    1985: Alec Jeffreys announced DNA fingerprinting method. Jeffreys was studying DNA variation and the evolution of gene families in order to understand disease causing genes.[57] In an attempt to develop a process to isolate many mini-satellites at once using chemical probes, Jeffreys took x-ray films of the DNA for examination and noticed that mini-satellite regions differ greatly from one person to another. In a DNA fingerprinting technique, a DNA sample is digested by treatment with specific nucleases or Restriction endonuclease and then the fragments are separated by electrophoresis producing a template distinct to each individual banding pattern of the gel.[58]
  • 1986: Jeremy Nathans found genes for color vision and color blindness, working with David Hogness, Douglas Vollrath and Ron Davis as they were studying the complexity of the retina.[59]
  • 1987: Yoshizumi Ishino discovers and describes part of a DNA sequence which later will be called CRISPR.
  • 1989: Thomas Cech discovered that RNA can catalyze chemical reactions,[60] making for one of the most important breakthroughs in molecular genetics, because it elucidates the true function of poorly understood segments of DNA.
  • 1989: The human gene that encodes the CFTR protein was sequenced by Francis Collins and Lap-Chee Tsui. Defects in this gene cause cystic fibrosis.[61]
  • 1992: American and British scientists unveiled a technique for testing embryos in-vitro (Amniocentesis) for genetic abnormalities such as Cystic fibrosis and Hemophilia.
  • 1993: Phillip Allen Sharp and Richard Roberts awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery that genes in DNA are made up of introns and exons. According to their findings, not all the nucleotides on the RNA strand (product of DNA transcription) are used in the translation process. The intervening sequences in the RNA strand are first spliced out so that only the RNA segment left behind after splicing would be translated to polypeptides.[62]
  • 1994: The first breast cancer gene is discovered. BRCA I was discovered by researchers at the King laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990 but was first cloned in 1994. BRCA II, the second key gene in the manifestation of breast cancer was discovered later in 1994 by Professor Michael Stratton and Dr. Richard Wooster.
  • 1995: The genome of bacterium Haemophilus influenzae is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced.[63]
  • 1996: Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a yeast species, is the first eukaryote genome sequence to be released.
  • 1996: Alexander Rich discovered the Z-DNA, a type of DNA which is in a transient state, that is in some cases associated with DNA transcription.[64] The Z-DNA form is more likely to occur in regions of DNA rich in cytosine and guanine with high salt concentrations.[65]
  • 1997: Dolly the sheep was cloned by Ian Wilmut and colleagues from the Roslin Institute in Scotland.[66]
  • 1998: The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, Caenorhabditis elegans, is released.
  • 2000: The full genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaster is completed.
  • 2001: First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics.
  • 2001: Francisco Mojica and Rudd Jansen propose the acronym CRISPR to describe a family of bacterial DNA sequences that can be used to specifically change genes within organisms.
  • Francis Collins announces the successful completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003
    2003: Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% accuracy.[67]
  • 2003: Paul Hebert introduces the standardisation of molecular species identification and coins the term 'DNA Barcoding',[68] proposing Cytochrome Oxidase 1 (CO1) as the DNA Barcode for Animals.[69]
  • 2004: Merck introduced a vaccine for Human Papillomavirus which promised to protect women against infection with HPV 16 and 18, which inactivates tumor suppressor genes and together cause 70% of cervical cancers.
  • 2007: Michael Worobey traced the evolutionary origins of HIV by analyzing its genetic mutations, which revealed that HIV infections had occurred in the United States as early as the 1960s.
  • 2007: Timothy Ray Brown becomes the first person cured from HIV/AIDS through a Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
  • 2007: The Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD) is set up as an international reference library for molecular species identification.[70]
  • 2008: Houston-based Introgen developed Advexin (FDA Approval pending), the first gene therapy for cancer and Li-Fraumeni syndrome, utilizing a form of Adenovirus to carry a replacement gene coding for the p53 protein.
  • 2009: The Consortium for the Barcode of Life Project (CBoL) Plant Working Group propose rbcL and matK as the duel barcode for land plants.[71]
  • 2010: Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (or TALENs) are first used to cut specific sequences of DNA.
  • 2011: Fungal Barcoding Consortium propose Internal Transcribed Spacer region (ITS) as the Universal DNA Barcode for Fungi.[72]
  • 2012: The flora of Wales is completely barcoded, and reference specimens stored in the BOLD systems database, by the National Botanic Garden of Wales.[73]
  • 2016: A genome is sequenced in outer space for the first time, with NASA astronaut Kate Rubins using a MinION device aboard the International Space Station.[74]

See also

References

  1. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp.210
  2. ^ Vries, H. de (1889) Intracellular Pangenesis [1] ("pan-gene" definition on page 7 and 40 of this 1910 translation in English)
  3. ^ Principles of Biochemistry / Nelson and Cox – 2005. pp.681
  4. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp. 383–384
  5. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008). pp. 430–431
  6. ^ Ernest W. Crow & James F. Crow (1 January 2002). "100 years ago: Walter Sutton and the chromosome theory of heredity". Genetics. 160 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1093/genetics/160.1.1. PMC 1461948. PMID 11805039.
  7. ^ O'Connor, C. & Miko, I. (2008) Developing the chromosome theory. Nature Education [2]
  8. ^ Sutton, W. S. (1902). "On the morphology of the chromosome group in Brachystola magna" (PDF). Biological Bulletin. 4 (24–3): 39. doi:10.2307/1535510. JSTOR 1535510.
  9. ^ Online copy of William Bateson's letter to Adam Sedgwick Archived 2007-10-13 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Bateson, William (1907). "The Progress of Genetic Research". In Wilks, W. (ed.). Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding. London: Royal Horticultural Society. Although the conference was titled "International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding", Wilks changed the title for publication as a result of Bateson's speech.
  11. ^ Johannsen, W.; Johannsen, W. (1909). Elemente der exakten erblichkeitslehre. Deutsche wesentlich erweiterte ausgabe in fünfundzwanzig vorlesungen. Jena: G. Fischer.
  12. ^ Johannsen, Wilhelm (1909). Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre [Elements of the exact theory of heredity] (in German). Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer. p. 123. Johannsen distinguished between an organism's outward appearance (which he designated as its "phenotype") and its inherent genetic heritage (which he designated as its "genotype"). He stressed that an organism's appearance need not correspond exactly to its genetic heritage. So on p. 123 he defines "phenotype": "Darum könnte man den statistisch hervortretenden Typus passend als Erscheinungstypus bezeichnen oder, kurz und klar, als "Phaenotypus". 1) … Ein gebener Phaenotypus mag Ausdruck einer biologischen Einheit sein; er braucht es aber durchaus nicht zu sein. 1) Von φαίν-ομαι, scheinen." (Therefore one could designate the statistically prominent type appropriately as a type of appearance or, clearly and concisely, as a "phenotype". 1) … A given phenotype may be an expression of a biological unit; but it definitely need not be so. 1) From φαίν-ομαι, to appear.)
  13. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. p.99
  14. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp.147
  15. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp.109
  16. ^ Online summary of "Real Genetic vs. Lysenko Controversy
  17. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp.190
  18. ^ Hämmerling, J. (1953). "Nucleo-cytoplasmic Relationships in the Development of Acetabularia". International Review of Cytology Volume 2. Vol. 2. pp. 475–498. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)61042-6. ISBN 9780123643025.
  19. ^ Mandoli, Dina F. (1998). What Ever Happened to Acetabularia? Bringing a Once-Classic Model System into the Age of Molecular Genetics. International Review of Cytology. Vol. 182. pp. 1–67. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)62167-1. ISBN 9780123645869.
  20. ^ Brachet, J. (1933). Recherches sur la synthese de l'acide thymonucleique pendant le developpement de l'oeuf d'Oursin. Archives de Biologie 44* 519–576.
  21. ^ Burian, R. (1994). Jean Brachet's Cytochemical Embryology: Connections with the Renovation of Biology in France? In: Debru, C., Gayon, J. and Picard, J.-F. (eds.). Les sciences biologiques et médicales en France 1920–1950, vol. 2 of Cahiers pour I'histoire de la recherche. Paris: CNRS Editions, pp. 207–220. link.
  22. ^ Beadle, GW; Tatum, EL (November 1941). "Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 27 (11): 499–506. Bibcode:1941PNAS...27..499B. doi:10.1073/pnas.27.11.499. PMC 1078370. PMID 16588492.
  23. ^ Luria, SE; Delbrück, M (November 1943). "Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance". Genetics. 28 (6): 491–511. doi:10.1093/genetics/28.6.491. PMC 1209226. PMID 17247100.
  24. ^ Oswald T. Avery; Colin M. MacLeod & Maclyn McCarty (1944). "Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 79 (1): 137–58. doi:10.1084/jem.79.2.137. PMC 2135445. PMID 19871359.35th anniversary reprint available
  25. ^ Luria, SE (1947). "Reactivation of Irradiated Bacteriophage by Transfer of Self-Reproducing Units". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 33 (9): 253–64. Bibcode:1947PNAS...33..253L. doi:10.1073/pnas.33.9.253. PMC 1079044. PMID 16588748.
  26. ^ Bernstein, C (1981). "Deoxyribonucleic acid repair in bacteriophage". Microbiol. Rev. 45 (1): 72–98. doi:10.1128/MMBR.45.1.72-98.1981. PMC 281499. PMID 6261109.
  27. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. pp.217 Table 9.1
  28. ^ Tamm, C.; Herman, T.; Shapiro, S.; Lipschitz, R.; Chargaff, E. (1953). "Distribution Density of Nucleotides within a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Chain". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 203 (2): 673–688. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)52337-7. PMID 13084637.
  29. ^ Hershey, AD; Chase, M (May 1952). "Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage". J. Gen. Physiol. 36 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1085/jgp.36.1.39. PMC 2147348. PMID 12981234.
  30. ^ "Due credit". Nature. 496 (7445): 270. 18 April 2013. doi:10.1038/496270a. PMID 23607133.
  31. ^ Watson JD, Crick FH (Apr 1953). "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid". Nature. 171 (4356): 737–8. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W. doi:10.1038/171737a0. PMID 13054692. S2CID 4253007.
  32. ^ Todd, AR (1954). "Chemical Structure of the Nucleic Acids". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 40 (8): 748–55. Bibcode:1954PNAS...40..748T. doi:10.1073/pnas.40.8.748. PMC 534157. PMID 16589553.
  33. ^ Wright, Pearce (11 December 2001). "Joe Hin Tjio The man who cracked the chromosome count". The Guardian.
  34. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008) pp. 548
  35. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. (Discovery of DNA polymerase I in E. Coli) pp.255
  36. ^ Ochoa, Severo.; Mehler, Alan H.; Kornberg, Arthur. (1948). "Biosynthesis of Dicarboxylic Acids by Carbon Dioxide Fixation". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 174 (3): 979–1000. doi:10.1016/s0021-9258(18)57307-5. S2CID 51845970.
  37. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008) pp. 467–469
  38. ^ Meselson, M; Stahl, FW (July 1958). "The replication of DNA in Escherichia coli". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 44 (7): 671–82. Bibcode:1958PNAS...44..671M. doi:10.1073/pnas.44.7.671. PMC 528642. PMID 16590258.
  39. ^ Jacob, F; Perrin, D; Sánchez, C; Monod, J; Edelstein, S (June 2005). "[The operon: a group of genes with expression coordinated by an operator. C.R.Acad. Sci. Paris 250 (1960) 1727–1729]". Comptes Rendus Biologies. 328 (6): 514–20. doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2005.04.005. PMID 15999435.
  40. ^ Jacob, F; Perrin, D; Sanchez, C; Monod, J (February 1960). "[Operon: a group of genes with the expression coordinated by an operator]". C. R. Acad. Sci. 250: 1727–9. PMID 14406329.
  41. ^ Crick, FH; Barnett, L; Brenner, S; Watts-Tobin, RJ (1961). "General nature of the genetic code for proteins". Nature. 192 (4809): 1227–32. Bibcode:1961Natur.192.1227C. doi:10.1038/1921227a0. PMID 13882203. S2CID 4276146.
  42. ^ "Molecular Station: Structure of protein coding mRNA (2007)". Archived from the original on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2016-07-11.
  43. ^ Crick, FH; Barnett, L; Brenner, S; Watts-Tobin, RJ (December 1961). "General nature of the genetic code for proteins". Nature. 192 (4809): 1227–32. Bibcode:1961Natur.192.1227C. doi:10.1038/1921227a0. PMID 13882203. S2CID 4276146.
  44. ^ Principles of Genetics / D. Peter Snustad, Michael J. Simmons – 5th Ed. (Discovery of DNA polymerase I in E. Coli) pp.420
  45. ^ Genetics and Genomics Timeline: The discovery of messenger RNA (mRNA) by Sydney Brenner, Francis Crick, Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod [3]
  46. ^ Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W (May 1972). "Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein". Nature. 237 (5350): 82–8. Bibcode:1972Natur.237...82J. doi:10.1038/237082a0. PMID 4555447. S2CID 4153893.
  47. ^ Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, Haegeman G, Iserentant D, Merregaert J, Min Jou W, Molemans F, et al. (1976). "Complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene". Nature. 260 (5551): 500–507. Bibcode:1976Natur.260..500F. doi:10.1038/260500a0. PMID 1264203. S2CID 4289674.
  48. ^ Genetics, "The hisB463 Mutation and Expression of a Eukaryotic Protein in Escherichia coli", Vol. 180, 709–714, October 2008 [4]
  49. ^ Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M, et al. (Feb 1977). "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA". Nature. 265 (5596): 687–95. Bibcode:1977Natur.265..687S. doi:10.1038/265687a0. PMID 870828. S2CID 4206886.
  50. ^ Sanger, F; Nicklen, S; Coulson, AR (December 1977). "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 74 (12): 5463–7. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.5463S. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463. PMC 431765. PMID 271968.
  51. ^ Principles of Biochemistry / Nelson and Cox – 2005. pp. 296–298
  52. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008). pp. 976–977
  53. ^ Patents 4 Life: Bertram Rowland 1930–2010. Biotech Patent Pioneer Dies (2010) [5]
  54. ^ Funding Universe: Genentech, Inc
  55. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008). Pp. 763
  56. ^ The Significance of Responses of the Genome to Challenge / Barbara McClintock – Science New Series, Vol. 226, No. 4676 (1984), pp. 792–801
  57. ^ Lemelson MIT Program—Inventor of the week: Alec Jeffreys – DNA FINGERPRINTING (2005) [6]
  58. ^ Jeffreys, AJ; Wilson, V; Thein, SL (1985). "Individual-specific 'fingerprints' of human DNA". Nature. 316 (6023): 76–79. Bibcode:1985Natur.316...76J. doi:10.1038/316076a0. PMID 2989708. S2CID 4229883.
  59. ^ Wikidoc: Color Blindness – Inheritance pattern of Color Blindness (2010) [7]
  60. ^ Cell and Molecular Biology, Concepts and experiments / Gerald Karp –5th Ed (2008) pp. 478
  61. ^ Kerem B; Rommens JM; Buchanan JA; Markiewicz; Cox; Chakravarti; Buchwald; Tsui (September 1989). "Identification of the cystic fibrosis gene: genetic analysis". Science. 245 (4922): 1073–80. Bibcode:1989Sci...245.1073K. doi:10.1126/science.2570460. PMID 2570460. S2CID 86352511.
  62. ^ A Century of Nobel Prize Recipients / Francis Leroy - 2003. pp 345
  63. ^ Fleischmann RD; Adams MD; White O; Clayton; Kirkness; Kerlavage; Bult; Tomb; Dougherty; Merrick; McKenney; Sutton; Fitzhugh; Fields; Gocyne; Scott; Shirley; Liu; Glodek; Kelley; Weidman; Phillips; Spriggs; Hedblom; Cotton; Utterback; Hanna; Nguyen; Saudek; et al. (July 1995). "Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd". Science. 269 (5223): 496–512. Bibcode:1995Sci...269..496F. doi:10.1126/science.7542800. PMID 7542800.
  64. ^ Rich, A; Zhang, S (July 2003). "Timeline: Z-DNA: the long road to biological function" (PDF). Nature Reviews Genetics. 4 (7): 566–572. doi:10.1038/nrg1115. PMID 12838348. S2CID 835548.
  65. ^ Kresge, N.; Simoni, R. D.; Hill, R. L. (2009). "The Discovery of Z-DNA: the Work of Alexander Rich". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 284 (51): e23–e25. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(20)37564-5. PMC 2791029.
  66. ^ CNN Interactive: A sheep cloning how-to, more or less(1997) http://www.cnn.com/TECH/9702/24/cloning.explainer/index.html
  67. ^ National Human Genome Research Institute / The Human Genome Project Completion: FAQs (2010) [8]
  68. ^ Hebert, Paul D. N.; Cywinska, Alina; Ball, Shelley L.; deWaard, Jeremy R. (2003-02-07). "Biological identifications through DNA barcodes". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 270 (1512): 313–321. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2218. ISSN 1471-2954. PMC 1691236. PMID 12614582.
  69. ^ Hebert, Paul D. N.; Gregory, T. Ryan (2005-10-01). "The Promise of DNA Barcoding for Taxonomy". Systematic Biology. 54 (5): 852–859. doi:10.1080/10635150500354886. ISSN 1076-836X. PMID 16243770.
  70. ^ RATNASINGHAM, SUJEEVAN; HEBERT, PAUL D. N. (2007-01-24). "BARCODING: bold: The Barcode of Life Data System (http://www.barcodinglife.org)". Molecular Ecology Notes. 7 (3): 355–364. doi:10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01678.x. ISSN 1471-8278. PMC 1890991. PMID 18784790.
  71. ^ Hollingsworth, P. M. (2011-11-22). "Refining the DNA barcode for land plants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (49): 19451–19452. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10819451H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1116812108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3241790. PMID 22109553.
  72. ^ Garcia-Hermoso, Dea (2012-09-20). "Faculty of 1000 evaluation for Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region as a universal DNA barcode marker for Fungi". doi:10.3410/f.717955047.793460391. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  73. ^ de Vere, Natasha; Rich, Tim C. G.; Ford, Col R.; Trinder, Sarah A.; Long, Charlotte; Moore, Chris W.; Satterthwaite, Danielle; Davies, Helena; Allainguillaume, Joel (2012-06-06). "DNA Barcoding the Native Flowering Plants and Conifers of Wales". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e37945. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...737945D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037945. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3368937. PMID 22701588.
  74. ^ "DNA sequenced in space for first time". BBC News. 30 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.