Linear A
Linear A | |
---|---|
Script type | Undeciphered
presumed logosyllabic (syllabic and ideographic) |
Time period | MM IB to LM IIIA 1800–1450 BC [1] |
Status | Extinct |
Direction | Left-to-right |
Languages | 'Minoan' (unknown) |
Related scripts | |
Child systems | Linear B, Cypro-Minoan syllabary [2] |
Sister systems | Cretan hieroglyphs |
ISO 15924 | |
ISO 15924 | Lina (400), Linear A |
Unicode | |
Unicode alias | Linear A |
"U+10600–U+1077F" (PDF). "Final Accepted Script Proposal" (PDF). |
Linear A is a writing system that was used by the Minoans of Crete from 1800 BC to 1450 BC. Linear A was the primary script used in palace and religious writings of the Minoan civilization. It was succeeded by Linear B, which was used by the Mycenaeans to write an early form of Greek. It was discovered by the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans in 1900. No texts in Linear A have yet been deciphered. Evans named the script "Linear" because its characters consisted simply of lines inscribed in clay, in contrast to the more pictographic characters in Cretan hieroglyphs that were used during the same period.[3]
Linear A belongs to a group of scripts that evolved independently of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian systems. During the second millennium BC, there were four major branches: Linear A, Linear B, Cypro-Minoan, and Cretan hieroglyphic.[4] In the 1950s, Linear B was deciphered and found to have an underlying language of Mycenaean Greek. Linear A shares many symbols with Linear B, and they may notate similar syllabic values, but neither those nor any other proposed readings lead to a language that scholars can read.
Script
Most hypotheses about the Linear A script and Minoan language start with Linear B.
Linear A has over 100 signs, believed to represent syllabic, ideographic, and semantic values in a manner similar to Linear B. While many of those assumed to be syllabic signs are similar to signs in Linear B, approximately 80% of Linear A's logograms are unique;[5][4] the difference in sound values between Linear A and Linear B signs ranges from 9% to 13%.[6] It primarily appears in the left-to-right direction, but occasionally appears as a right-to-left or boustrophedon script.
Linear A signs may be divided into four categories:
- numerals and metrical signs;
- phonetic signs;
- ligatures and composite signs;
- ideograms.
Signary
*01-*20 | *21-*30 | *31-*53 | *54-*74 | *76-*122 | *123-*306 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
*01 |
*21 |
*31 |
*54 |
*76 |
*123 | ||||||
*02 |
*21 |
*34 |
*55 |
*77 |
*131a | ||||||
*03 |
*21 |
*37 |
*56 |
*78 |
*131b | ||||||
*04 |
*22 |
*38 |
*57 |
*79 |
*131c | ||||||
*05 |
*22 |
*39 |
*58 |
*80 |
*164 | ||||||
*06 |
*22 |
*40 |
*59 |
*81 |
*171 | ||||||
*07 |
*23 |
*41 |
*60 |
*82 |
*180 | ||||||
*08 |
*23 |
*44 |
*61 |
*85 |
*188 | ||||||
*09 |
*24 |
*45 |
*65 |
*86 |
*191 | ||||||
*10 |
*26 |
*46 |
*66 |
*87 |
*301 | ||||||
*11 |
*27 |
*47 |
*67 |
*100/ |
*302 | ||||||
*13 |
*28 |
*49 |
*69 |
*118 |
*303 | ||||||
*16 |
*28b |
*50 |
*70 |
*120 |
*304 | ||||||
*17 |
*29 |
*51 |
*73 |
*120b |
*305 | ||||||
*20 |
*30 |
*53 |
*74 |
*122 |
*306 |
Numbers
Numbers follow a decimal system: units are represented by vertical dashes, tens by horizontal dashes, hundreds by circles, and thousands by circles with rays. There are special symbols to indicate fractions and weights. Specific signs that coincide with numerals are regarded as fractions;[8] these sign combinations are known as klasmatograms.[9]
Integers can be read and the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are quite straightforward, similarly to Roman numerals.[10]
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 |
100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500 | 600 | 700 | 800 | 900 |
Fractions
There is a lack of scholarly agreement about signs, generally called klasmatograms, for Linear A fractions.[11][12][13][14] In 2021 Michele Corazza proposed the following values, most of which had been previously suggested:[15]
Symbol | Glyph | Value |
---|---|---|
J | 1⁄2 | |
E | 1⁄4 | |
B | 1⁄5 | |
D | 1⁄6 | |
F | 1⁄8 | |
K | 1⁄10 | |
H | 1⁄16? | |
L2 | 1⁄20 | |
A | 1⁄24? | |
L3 | 1⁄30 | |
L4 | 1⁄40 | |
L6 | 1⁄60 | |
W | = BB? (2⁄5) | |
X | = AA? (1⁄12) | |
Y | ? | |
Ω | ? |
Other fractions are composed by addition: the common JE and DD are 3⁄4 and 1⁄3 (2⁄6), BB = 2⁄5, EF = 3⁄8, etc. (and indeed B 1⁄5 looks like it might derive from KK 2⁄10). L, Y, Ω are hapax legomenon (only occur once) and it has been proposed that glyph L is spurious.[15]
Several of these values are supported by Linear B. Although Linear B used a different numbering system, several of the Linear A fractions were adopted as fractional units of measurement. For example, Linear B DD and (presumably AA) are 1⁄3 and 1⁄12 of a lana, while K is 1⁄10 of the main unit for dry weight.[15]
Corpus
Linear A has been found chiefly on Crete, but also at other sites in Greece, as well as Turkey and Israel. The extant corpus, comprising some 1,427 specimens totals 7,362 to 7,396 signs. Linear A has been written on various media, such as stone offering tables and vessels, gold and silver hairpins, roundels, and ceramics.[16][17] The earliest inscriptions of Linear A come from Phaistos, in a layer dated at the end of the Middle Minoan II period: that is, no later than c. 1700 BC.[18][19] Linear A texts have been found throughout the island of Crete and also on some Aegean islands (Kythera, Kea, Thera, Melos), in mainland Greece (Ayos Stephanos), on the west coast of Asia Minor (Miletus, Troy), and in the Levant (Tel Haror, Tel Lachish).[20][21][22]
The first comprehensive compendium of Linear A inscriptions (sometimes referred to as GORILA) was produced by Louis Godart and Jean-Pierre Olivier in multiple columns between 1976 and 1985.[23][24][25][26][27] In 2011 work began on a supplement to that compendium.[28] In 2020 a project was begun, called SigLA, to put all the known Linear A inscriptions online at a single site.[29]
Tablets
Essentially all Linear A tablets, most in a fragmentary condition, have been found on the island of Crete, dated to the Neopalatial Period. At that time Crete was divided by mountains and other geographic features into a number of polities, each with its own urban center.[30] These tablets have been found at Hagia Triada (147 tablets), Petras, Phaistos (26 tablets), Knossos (6 tablets), Petsophas, Archanes (7 tablets), Myrtos Pyrgos (2 tablets), Zakros (31 tablets), Tylissos (2 tablets), Malia (6 tablets), Gournia (1 tablet), and Khania (99 tablets).[31][32][33][34][35] One Linear A tablet was found on Kea in the Cyclades.[36] Three tablet fragments were found on on the island of Santorini (Thera).[37] The handful of known Cretan Hieroglyphs tablets known (with relatively few signs) were also found on Crete at Malia and Kato Symi.[38]
Sealed documents
Seals and clay sealings served the same role of inventory control and ownership as in the ancient Near East and Egypt. Large numbers of sealings have been found, primarily on Crete and in the Late Minoan IB period. The primary sources of sealed documents come from Haghia Triada (1103), Zakros (560), Khania (210), Knossos (125), Phaistos (35), Mallia (6), and Tylissos (5).[39] It is not clear what was commonly used to impress the sealing as only a few Linear A inscribed "seal stones" have been found. In other regions cylinder seals and stamp seals fulfilled this role.[40]
Sealed documents are divided by archaeologists into four classes:[32]
- Roundels - disks of clay with sealing on the edges[41]
- Hanging nodules - sealed lumps of clay originally attached to string[42]
- Parcel nodules - lumps of clay with sealing on back
- Noduli - clay lumps like hanging nodules but not formerly string attached
Libation Tables
A group of Minoan finds, usually from sanctuaries, have traditionally been called libation tables. They come in full sized and miniature versions, usually of stone. Because of the findspots, at cultic sites like Mount Juktas, they are usually assumed to be religious in nature though that is not certain.[43] So far about 1000 libation tables have been recovered at 27 different sites on Crete, of which 41 have Linear A inscriptions.[44][45][46] These inscriptions follow a standardized "libation formula", a formula also found on a few other objects, primarily vessels.[47][48][49][50]
The "libation formula" has been much studied.[51][52] A similar construct in Cretan Hieroglyphs, the "Archanes Formula", is the main proposed link to Linear A.[53]
Other sources
While most of the recovered Linear A signs have come from tablets, libation tables and related ritual objects, and sealed documents, a number of very short Linear A inscriptions have been found in the Minoan area of operation, primarily in the form of potmarks and mason's marks.[54] A problem is that is can be difficult to tell if a single-sign (or even doubleton) is Linear A, Linear B, or Cretan Hieroglyphs because of the overlap in sign use.[55][56] Vessel sherds were found at Traostalos, bearing three signs in total.[57] Four vase sherds were found at Thera with signs, as well as a ostrakon with one sign.[37] A vessel fragement was found at Miletus.[58] Two pithoi with very fragmentary inscriptions were found at Pseira.[59] Graffiti has been found at places like Hagia Triada.[60] A small clay ball with three Linear A signs was found at Mikro Vouni on the island of Samothrace.[61] A small stone tab with two signs was excavated in Hagios Stephanos, Laconia.[62] A siver hair pin and a gold ring, both with fairly long Linear A inscriptions, were found at Mavro Spelio in Knossos.[63][21][64]
A Linear A inscription was said to have been found in southeast Bulgaria.[65] Another, somewhat more solid, find was at Tel Lachish.[66] A Minoan graffito found at Tel Haror on a vessel fragment is either Linear A or Cretan hieroglyphs.[67]
Several tablets inscribed in signs similar to Linear A were found at Troy in northwestern Anatolia. While their status is disputed, they may be imports, as there is no evidence of Minoan presence in the Troad. Classification of these signs as a unique Trojan script (proposed by contemporary Russian linguist Nikolai Kazansky) is not accepted by other linguists.[68][69] Two Linear A inscribed clay spindle whorls were also found at Troy.[70]
Chronology
The earliest attestation of Linear A begins around 1800 BC (Middle Minoan IB) during the Protopalatial period. It became prominent around 1625 BC (Middle Minoan IIIB) and went out of use around 1450 BC (Late Minoan I) during the Neopalatial period. It was contemporary with and possibly derived from Cretan hieroglyphs, and may be an ancestor of Linear B. The Cypro-Minoan syllabary, used between Cyprus and its trading partners around the Mediterranean, was also in use during this period.[71] The sequence and the geographical spread of Cretan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B, the three overlapping but distinct writing systems on Bronze Age Crete and the Greek mainland, can be summarized as follows:[72]
Writing system | Geographical area | Time span |
---|---|---|
Cretan Hieroglyphic | Crete, Samothrace | c. 2100–1700 BC |
Linear A | Crete, Aegean islands (Kea, Kythera, Melos, Thera), and Greek mainland (Laconia) | c. 1800–1450 BC |
Cypro-Minoan | Cyprus and trading partners, Ugarit | c. 1550–1050 BC |
Linear B | Crete (Knossos), and mainland (Pylos, Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns) | c. 1450–1200 BC |
Decipherment
The decipherment of Linear A is a difficult challenge for several reasons:
- only at most 1400 inscriptions are available which overstates matters as most of them are short. The longer texts, on tablets, are generally in fragmentary/damaged condition while the next longest sources, on ritual objects, are typically of a standardized "libation formula".[16]
- most of the tablet texts are of a simple economic or administrative nature, similar to the problem found in Uruk period Proto-cuneiform tablets.[73]
- no dual/language key text, like the Rosetta stone, has yet been found for Linear A.
- despite much scholarly work, and no small amount of speculation, the underlying language of Linear A has not been determined, nor if the same language was used for its entire lifespan of use.
Earlier attempts at decipherment
Since Linear A was discovered over a century ago numerous attempts have been made to decipher it. Its similarities to Linear B have been used to achieve insights into Linear A, even though they have not resulted in a complete decipherment.[74]
In 1945, E. Pugliese Carratelli first introduced the classification of Linear A and Linear B parallels. However, in 1961, W. C. Brice modified the Pugliese Carratelli system that was based on a wider range of Linear A sources, but Brice did not suggest Linear B equivalents to the Linear A signs. The majority of signs in the Linear A script appear to have graphical equivalents in the Linear B syllabary. Comparison of the Hagia Triada tablets HT 95 and HT 86 shows that they contain identical lists of words and some kind of phonetic alteration. Scholars who approached Linear A with the phonetic values of Linear B produced a series of identical words. The Linear B–Linear A parallels: ku-ku-da-ra, pa-i-to, ku-mi-na, di-de-ro →di-de-ru, qa-qa-ro→qa-qa-ru, a-ra-na-ro→a-ra-na-re.[75] Though identical, some of these words, such as ka-pa, are used in much different ways.[76]
Some researchers suggest that a few words or word elements may be recognized, without (yet) enabling any conclusion about relationship with other languages. In general, they use analogy with Linear B in order to propose phonetic values of the syllabic sounds.[77] John Younger, in particular, thinks that place names usually appear in certain positions in the texts, and notes that the proposed phonetic values sometimes correspond to known place names as given in Linear B texts (and to modern Greek names). Likewise, in Linear A, MA+RU is suggested to mean wool, and to correspond both to a Linear B pictogram with this meaning, and to the classical Greek word μαλλός with the same meaning (in that case a loan word from Minoan).[78]
A number of other underlying languages were subsequently proposed and tested without success.
Current approaches
The current state of Linear A decipherment research primarily focuses on combining computation techniques like cryptanalysis and machine learning with traditional methods.[79][80][81][82] Natural language processing techniques have also been applied.[83] Traditional approaches, though, are still being applied. Recently, it was determined that the word order in Libation Formulas was Verb Subject Object with, in one case, a word meaning determined by recourse to Linear B.[84][85]
Proposed languages encoded
The underlying language of Linear A is unknown. It is generally considered to represent an unknown indigenous Minoan language. As for its possible genetic relationships to other languages, many hypotheses have been put forward but none has been proved.[86] It has also been suggested that Linear A encodes two languages.[87]
Greek
In 1957, Bulgarian scholar Vladimir I. Georgiev proposed that Linear A contains Greek linguistic elements.[88][89] Georgiev then published another work in 1963 suggesting that the language of the Hagia Triada tablets was Greek but that the rest of the Linear A corpus was in Hittite-Luwian.[89][90] In December 1963, Gregory Nagy of Harvard University developed a list of Linear A and Linear B terms based on the assumption "that signs of identical or similar shape in the two scripts will represent similar or identical phonetic values", concluding that the language of Linear A bears "Greek-like" and Indo-European elements.[91]
Other researchers have raised doubts about a variant of Greek underlying Linear A. Yves Duhoux, for example, stated:
"I would like to remind you of some basic facts related to the Greekness of Linear A's language: (1) The word for "total" is different in Linear A and in Linear B: LB to - so(- de); LA → B ku-ro. (2) The Linear B language is significantly less "prefixing" than Linear A. (3) Votive Linear A texts, where we are pretty sure to have variant forms of the same "word", show morphological (I mean: grammatical) features totally different from Linear B. The conclusion must be that even if one can find some casual resemblances between words in both languages (remember this MUST statistically happen: e.g. English and Persian use the same word "bad" to express the meaning of BAD, although it is proven that both words have no genetic relation at all), they are probably structurally different."[75]
Anatolian languages
Since the late 1950s, some scholars have suggested that the Linear A language could be an Anatolian language.[92]
Luwian/Hittite
In 1958 Leonard Palmer put forward a theory, as yet unsupported, based on Linear B phonetic values, suggesting that Linear A language could be related closely to Luwian.[92][36] There are recent works focused on the Luwian connection, not in terms of the Minoan language being Anatolian, but rather in terms of possible borrowings from Luwian, including the origin of the writing system itself.[93] Richard Janke has suggested that "Hittite and Luwian cognates often reappear in Linear A".[94]
Lycian
In 2001, Margalit Finkelberg, Professor of Classics emerita at Tel Aviv University, suggested a "high degree of correspondence between the phonological and morphological system of Minoan and that of Lycian" and proposed that "the language of Linear A is either the direct ancestor of Lycian or a closely related idiom, though the earliest known record of the Lycian language dates to much later, circa 500 BC."[75]
Semitic languages
Cyrus H. Gordon, having earlier suggested that some Linear A words had Semitic roots, first proposed in 1966–1969 that the texts contained Semitic vocabulary that was based on the lexical items such as kull- (compare with Akkadian kalu, kullatu (𒅗𒆷, 𒆰𒆷𒌅), Hebrew "kol" (כֹּל), and Arabic "kull" (كُلّ)), meaning 'all'.[95][96][4] Gordon uses morphological evidence to suggest that u- serves as a prefix in Linear A like the Semitic copula u-. However, Gordon's copula u- is based on an incomplete word, and even if some of Gordon's identifications were correct, a complete case for a Semitic language has not yet been built.[4]
Phoenician
In 2001, Jan Best, claimed to demonstrate how and why Linear A notates an archaic form of Phoenician.[97][98] This was a continuation of attempts by Cyrus Gordon in finding connections between Minoan and West Semitic languages.
Indo-Iranian
Another recent interpretation, based on the frequencies of the syllabic signs and on complete palaeographic comparative studies, suggests that the Minoan Linear A language belongs to the Indo-Iranian family of Indo-European languages. Hubert La Marle used the frequency counts to identify the type of syllables written in Linear A, and takes into account the problem of loanwords in the vocabulary.[99]
La Marle's interpretation of Linear A has been subject to some criticism; it was rejected in 2009 by John Younger of the University of Kansas who showed that La Marle had invented at will erroneous and arbitrary new transcriptions, based on resemblances with many different script systems (as Phoenician, Hieroglyphic Egyptian, Hieroglyphic Hittite, Ethiopian, Cypro-Minoan, etc.), ignoring established evidence and internal analysis, while for some words La Marle proposes religious meanings inventing names of gods and rites.[100] La Marle made a rebuttal in 2010.[101]
Tyrrhenian
Italian scholar Giulio M. Facchetti attempted to link Linear A to the Tyrrhenian language family comprising Etruscan, Rhaetic, and Lemnian. This family is reasoned to be a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean substratum of the 2nd millennium BC, sometimes referred to as Pre-Greek. Facchetti proposed some possible similarities between the Etruscan language and ancient Lemnian, and other Aegean languages like Minoan.[102]
Sir Arthur Evans and also Michael Ventris, who (with John Chadwick) successfully deciphered Linear B, believed in a link between Minoan and Etruscan.[103] The same perspective is supported by S. Yatsemirsky in Russia and Raymond A. Brown.[104][105]
Other languages
Alexander Akulov and Peter Schrijver proposed that the language of Linear A is a close relative of the Hattic language.[106][107]
Monti put forward a Hurrian-Urartian hypothesis based on morphematic elements.[108] More recently he has changed to the view that "a direct kinship between this language and Hurro-Urartian (or any other ergative language) must be ruled out".[44] An Indo-European hypothesis was proposed by Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak and Daria Zawiasa based on an analysis of the combinatory data, mostly in libation formulas.[109][110] Early on there were also attempts to link Linear A with Proto-cuneiform and Proto-Elamite.[111]
Unicode
The Linear A alphabet (U+10600–U+1077F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2014 with the release of version 7.0. Current as of the latest Unicode version, 15.1.[112]
See also
References
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- ^ Valério, Miguel, "Linear A du and Cypriot su: a Case of Diachronic Acrophony?", Kadmos, vol. 47, no. 1-2, pp. 57-66, 2009
- ^ Olivier 1986, pp. 377f.
- ^ Davis, Brent and Valério, Miguel, "Names and Designations of People in Linear A: A Contextual Study of Tablets Ht 85 and 117", Neôteros. Studies in Bronze Age Aegean Art and Archaeology in Honor of Professor John G. Younger on the Occasion of his Retirement, hrsg. v. Davis, Brent, Laffineur, Robert (Aegaeum 44), pp. 22-32, 2020
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- ^ a b c Finkelberg, Margalit (2001). "The Language of Linear A: Greek, Semitic, or Anatolian?". In Drews, Robert (ed.). Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite Language Family. Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series. Vol. 38. pp. 81–105. ISBN 978-0941694773 – via Academia.edu.
- ^ Uchitel, A. (2003). "HT 94.", Minos, 37/38, pp. 81–88
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- ^ Younger, John (2000). "10c. Place names". Linear A texts in phonetic transcription. University of Kansas. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
- ^ Eu, N., D. Xu, and F. Perono Cacciafoco, "Coding to Decipher Linear A", In: Proceedings of the 2019 Pacific Neighbourhood Consortium An nual Conference and Joint Meetings (PNC), Singapore: Nanyang Techno logical University, pp. 44–48, 2019
- ^ Colin, Loh Jia Sheng, and Francesco Perono Cacciafoco, "A New Approach to the Decipherment of Linear A, Stage 2", in Y. Haralambous (Ed.), Grapholinguistics in the 21st Century 2020. Proceedings Grapholinguistics and Its Applications (ISSN: 26818566, eISSN: 25345192), Vol. 5. Fluxus Editions, Brest, pp. 927–943, 2021
- ^ Nepal, Aaradh, and Francesco Perono Cacciafoco. "Minoan Cryptanalysis: Computational Approaches to Deciphering Linear A and Assessing Its Connections with Language Families from the Mediterranean and the Black Sea Areas." Information 15.2, pp. 73, 2024
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- ^ How do you crack the code to a lost ancient script? - Andrew Trounson, University of Melbourne - 5 November 2019
- ^ Younger, John (2000). "9. Language". Linear A texts in phonetic transcription. University of Kansas. A comprehensive list of known texts written in Linear A.
- ^ Chadwick J., "Introduction to the problems of ‘Minoan Linear A’", JRAS 2, pp. 143–147, 1975
- ^ Georgiev, V., "Le déchiffrement des inscriptions crétoises en linéaire A, La position du dialecte crétois des inscrip-tions en linéaire A", Sofia: Acad. des Sciences de Bulgarie 1957.8, pp. 407—408, 1957
- ^ a b Nagy 1963, p. 210 (Footnote #24).
- ^ Georgiev 1963, pp. 1–104.
- ^ Nagy 1963, pp. 181–211.
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- ^ Marangozis, John (2006). An introduction to Minoan Linear A. LINCOM Europa.
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- ^ Gordon, C. (1957). Notes on Minoan Linear A. Antiquity, 31(123), 124–130
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- ^ Younger, John (2009). "Linear A: Critique of Decipherments by Hubert La Marle and Kjell Aartun". University of Kansas. According to Younger, La Marle "assigns phonetic values to Linear signs based on superficial resemblances to signs in other scripts (the choice of scripts being already prejudiced to include only those from the eastern Mediterranean and northeast Africa), as if C looks like O so it must be O."
- ^ La Marle, Hubert (September 2010). An answer to John G. Younger's remarks on Linear A (Report) – via Academia.edu.
- ^ Facchetti & Negri 2003.
- ^ Chadwick 1967.
- ^ Yatsemirsky 2011.
- ^ Brown, Raymond A. (1985). Evidence for pre-Greek speech on Crete from Greek alphabetic sources. Amsterdam: Adolf M. Hakkert. ISBN 978-9-02-560876-7.
- ^ Akulov, A. 2021. The deciphering of the Linear A tablet Malia 10. Cultural Anthropology and Ethnosemiotics, Vol. 7, № 3; pp.: 8 – 18
- ^ Schrijver, P. 2019. Talking Neolithic: the case for Hatto-Minoan and its relationship to Sumerian, Proceedings of the workshop on Indo-European origins held at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, December 2–3, 2013
- ^ Monti O. 2002, "Observations sur la langue du linéaire A", Kadmos 41, pp. 117–120
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- ^ Witczak K.T. – Zawiasa D., "For All the Gods'. Studies in the Votive Sentences in Three Cretan Scripts (Hieroglyphic, Linear A and Linear B)", Do-so-mo 2–3, pp. 37–57, 2002-2003
- ^ Brice, William C., "A Comparison of the Account Tablets of Susa in the Proto-Elamite Script with Those of Hagia Triada in Linear A", Kadmos, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 27-38, 1963
- ^ [10] Michael Everson, "N3973: Revised proposal for encoding the Linear A script in the SMP of the UCS", Working Group Document, ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, 2010-12-28
Works cited
- Chadwick, John (1967). The Decipherment of Linear B. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-39830-5.
- Cook, Mark. (2022). Rewriting History: The decipherment of Linear A and a history of Egypto-Cretan relations in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Sydney: self-published. ISBN 978-0-646-86541-6.
- Dietrich, Manfried; Loretz, Oswald (2001). In Memoriam: Cyrus H. Gordon. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-934628-00-7.
- Facchetti, Giulio M.; Negri, Mario (2003). Creta Minoica: Sulle tracce delle più antiche scritture d'Europa (in Italian). Firenze: L.S. Olschki. ISBN 978-88-222-5291-3.
- Finkelberg, Margalit (1998). "Bronze Age Writing: Contacts between East and West" (PDF). In Cline, E.H.; Harris-Cline, D. (eds.). The Aegean and the Orient in the Second Millennium. Proceedings of the 50th Anniversary Symposium, Cincinnati, 18–20 April 1997. Liège 1998. Aegeum. Vol. 18. pp. 265–272. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016.
- Georgiev, Vladimir I. (1963). "Les deux langues des inscriptions crétoises en linéaire A". Linguistique Balkanique (in French). 7 (1): 1–104.
- Nagy, Gregory (1963). "Greek-Like Elements in Linear A". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 4 (4). Durham: Duke University Press: 181–211. ISSN 2159-3159.
- Olivier, J.P. (1986). "Cretan Writing in the Second Millennium B.C." World Archaeology. 17 (3): 377–389. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979977. ISSN 0043-8243.
- Owens, Gareth (1999). "The Structure of the Minoan Language" (PDF). Journal of Indo-European Studies. 27 (1–2): 15–56. ISSN 0092-2323. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
- Owens, Gareth Alun (2007). "Η Δομή της Μινωικής Γλώσσας" [The Structure of the Minoan Language] (PDF) (in Greek). Heraklion: TEI of Crete –Daidalika. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
- Packard, David W. (1974). Minoan Linear A. Berkeley / Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02580-6.
- Palaima, Thomas G. (1997) [1989]. "Cypro-Minoan Scripts: Problems of Historical Context". In Duhoux, Yves; Palaima, Thomas G.; Bennet, John (eds.). Problems in Decipherment. Louvain-La-Neuve: Peeters. pp. 121–188. ISBN 978-90-6831-177-8.
- Palmer, Leonard Robert (1958). "Luvian and Linear A". Transactions of the Philological Society. 57 (1): 75–100. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1958.tb01273.x. ISSN 0079-1636.
- Yatsemirsky, Sergei A. (2011). Opyt sravnitel'nogo opisaniya minoyskogo, etrusskogo i rodstvennyh im yazykov [Tentative Comparative Description of Minoan, Etruscan and Related Languages] (in Russian). Moscow: Yazyki slavyanskoy kul'tury. ISBN 978-5-9551-0479-9.
Further reading
- John Bennet, "Now You See It; Now You Don’t! The disappearance of the Linear A script on Crete", In: The Disappearance of Writing Sys- tems:Perspectives on Literacy and Communication. Ed. by John Baines, John Bennet, and Stephen Houston. London and Oakville, pp. 1–29, 2008
- Best, Jan G. P. (1972). Some Preliminary Remarks on the Decipherment of Linear A. Amsterdam: Hakkert.
- Brice, William C., "Notes on Linear A". Kadmos, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 81–106, 1983
- Brice, William C., "Some observations on the linear A inscriptions", Kadmos, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 42–48, 1962
- Davis, S. (March 1959). "New Light on Linear A". Greece & Rome. 6 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1017/S0017383500013231. ISSN 1477-4550. JSTOR 641970. S2CID 162763789.
- Facchetti, Giulio M. (2003). "On Some Recent Attempts to Identify Linear A Minoan Language". Minos (37–38): 89–94. ISSN 0544-3733.
- Gordon, Cyrus H. (1958). "Minoan Linear A". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 17 (4): 245–255. doi:10.1086/371479. ISSN 0022-2968. JSTOR 542386. S2CID 161866359.
- Ferrara, Silvia; Valério, Miguel; Montecchi, Barbara (2022). "The Relationship between Cretan Hieroglyphic and Linear A: a palaeographic and structural approach" (PDF). Pasiphae – Journal of Aegean Philology and Antiquity. 26 (16): 81–109. doi:10.19272/202233301006. ISSN 2037-738X.
- Judson, A. P. (2020). The Undeciphered Signs of Linear B. Interpretation and Scribal Practices. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108796910.
- Marangozis, John (2007). An introduction to Minoan linear A. München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 978-3-89586-386-8.
- Militello, Pietro, "Ayia Triada tablets, findspots and scribes. A reappraisal", Pasiphae, vol. 000, no. 005, pp. 59–69, 2011
- Montecchi, Barbara, "Linear a Banqueting Lists?", Kadmos, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 1–26, 2012
- Montecchi, Barbara (January 2010). "A Classification Proposal of Linear A Tablets from Haghia Triada in Classes and Series". Kadmos. 49 (1): 11–38. doi:10.1515/KADMOS.2010.002. ISSN 0022-7498. S2CID 124902710.
- Montecchi, Barbara (1 February 2022). "Rebus compositions in Linear A?". Kadmos. 61 (1–2): 97–106. doi:10.1515/kadmos-2022-0004.
- Nagy, Gregory (October 1965). "Observations on the Sign-Grouping and Vocabulary of Linear A". American Journal of Archaeology. 69 (4): 295–330. doi:10.2307/502181. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 502181. S2CID 191385596.
- Notti, Erika (2010). "The Theran Epigraphic Corpus of Linear A : Geographical and Chronological Implications". Pasiphae (4): 93–96. doi:10.1400/168368. ISSN 2037-738X.
- Notti, Erika, "Writing in Late Bronze Age Thera. Further Observations on the Theran Corpus of Linear A", Pasiphae, vol. 000, no. 015, 2021 ISSN: 2037-738X
- Palmer, Ruth (1995). "Linear A Commodities: A Comparison of Resources" (PDF). Aegeum. 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
- Revesz, Peter (2017). "Establishing the West-Ugric Language Family with Minoan, Hattic and Hungarian by a Decipherment of Linear A" (PDF). WSEAS Transactions on Information Science and Applications. 14: 306–335.
- Salgarella, Ester (2020). Aegean Linear Script(s): Rethinking the Relationship between Linear A and Linear B. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108479387.
- Schoep, Ilse (2002). "The Administration of Neopalatial Crete. A Critical Assessment of the Linear A Tablets and their Role in the Administrative Process". Minos (Supplementary Volume no. 17). Salamanca: 1–230. ISSN 0544-3733. OCLC 52610144.
- van Soesbergen, Peter (2016). "Part 1, Text". Hurrians and Hurrian in Minoan Crete. Minoan Linear A. Vol. I. Amsterdam: Brave New Books. ISBN 978-0-19-956778-2.
- Thomas, Helena (2003). Understanding the transition from Linear A to Linear B script (D. Phil. thesis). University of Oxford. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Supervisor: Professor John Bennet. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 311–338).
External links
- Cracking the Cretan code Ester Salgarella AEON 2022
- The mathematical values of Linear A fraction signs – Science Daily – September 8, 2020
- Interactive database of Linear A inscriptions Description
- Mnamon: Antiche Scritture del Mediterraneo (Antique Writings of the Mediterranean)
- GORILA Volume 1
- Linear A Explorer
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