Campylobacteriosis

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Campylobacteriosis
Other names: Campylobacter food poisoning – campylobacter enteritis[1]
  • Top:Cluster of drug-resistant, curly-cue shaped, Campylobacter sp. bacteria

  • Bottom: Role of innate and adaptive immunity in campylobacteriosis.[2]
SpecialtyInfectious disease
SymptomsDiarrhea, abdominal pain, fever
Complicationstoxic megacolon, dehydration, sepsis, Guillain–Barré syndrome
CausesCampylobacter jejuni
Diagnostic methodGram stain of stool sample
TreatmentSupportive care,
Antibiotics (select cases)
PrognosisUsually self-limited
DeathsInfrequent

Campylobacteriosis is an infection by the Campylobacter bacterium, most commonly C. jejuni.[3][4]Campylobacteriosis is usually self-limiting and antimicrobial treatment is often not required, except in severe cases or immunocompromised individuals.[5] The most known source for Campylobacter is poultry, but due to their diverse natural reservoir, Campylobacter spp. can also be transmitted via water.[6]Other known sources of Campylobacter infections include food products, such as unpasteurised milk and contaminated fresh produce.[7]

It is among the most common bacterial infections of humans, often a foodborne illness. It produces an inflammatory, sometimes bloody, diarrhea or dysentery syndrome, mostly including cramps, fever and pain.[8]

Symptoms and signs

The prodromal symptoms are fever, headache, and myalgia, which can be severe, lasting as long as 24 hours. After 1–5 days, typically, these are followed by diarrhea or dysentery, cramps, abdominal pain, and fever, in most people, the illness lasts for 2–10 days. It is classified as invasive/inflammatory diarrhea, also described as bloody diarrhea or dysentery.There are other diseases showing similar symptoms, for instance, abdominal pain and tenderness may be very localized, mimicking appendicitis. Furthermore, Helicobacter pylori is closely related to Campylobacter and causes peptic ulcer disease.[9][10][1][11][12]

Complications

Toxic megacolon

Complications include toxic megacolon, dehydration and sepsis. Such complications generally occur in young children and immunocompromised people.[13]

A chronic course of the disease is possible; this disease process is likely to develop without a distinct acute phase. Chronic campylobacteriosis features a long period of sub-febrile temperature and asthenia, also arthritis, may develop if infection is untreated.[14]

Occasional deaths occur in young, previously healthy individuals because of blood volume depletion, and in persons who are elderly or immunocompromised. Some individuals develop Guillain–Barré syndrome, in which the nerves that join the spinal cord and brain to the rest of the body are damaged, sometimes permanently. This occurs only with infection of C. jejuni and C. upsaliensis.[15][16][17]

Cause

Main article: Campylobacter

Campylobacteriosis is caused by Campylobacter bacteria (curved or spiral, motile, non–spore-forming, Gram-negative rods). The disease is usually caused by C. jejuni, a spiral and comma-shaped bacterium normally found in cattle, swine, and birds, where it is nonpathogenic, but the illness can also be caused by C. coli (swine, and birds[18]), C. upsaliensis (cats and dogs[19]) and C. lari (seabirds[18]).One effect of campylobacteriosis is tissue injury in the gut, the sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, and the colon, C jejuni appears to achieve this by invading and destroying epithelial cells.[20][21][22]

C. jejuni can also cause a latent autoimmune effect on the nerves of the legs, which is usually seen several weeks after a surgical procedure of the abdomen. The effect is known as an acute idiopathic demyelinating polyneuropathy, in which one sees symptoms of ascending paralysis, dysaesthesias usually below the waist, and, in the later stages, respiratory problems[17].Some strains of C jejuni produce a cholera-like enterotoxin, which is important in watery diarrhea observed in infections. The organism produces diffuse, bloody, edematous, and exudative enteritis.[23][22]

  • Campylobacter species arrows stained by 1% carbol fuchsin

    Campylobacter species arrows stained by 1% carbol fuchsin

  • This Petri dish culture plate contained Skirrow and Butzler growth medium, which had been inoculated with a culture of Campylobacter jejuni, formerly known as Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni, and had produced numerous, small round bacterial colonies. Campylobacteriosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Campylobacter. Most people who become ill with campylobacteriosis have diarrhea, cramping, abdominal pain, and fever within 2 to 5-days after exposure to the organism.

    This Petri dish culture plate contained Skirrow and Butzler growth medium, which had been inoculated with a culture of Campylobacter jejuni, formerly known as Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni, and had produced numerous, small round bacterial colonies. Campylobacteriosis is an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Campylobacter. Most people who become ill with campylobacteriosis have diarrhea, cramping, abdominal pain, and fever within 2 to 5-days after exposure to the organism.

  • Campylobacter bacteria are the number-one cause of food-related gastrointestinal illness in the United States. This scanning electron microscope image shows the characteristic spiral, or corkscrew, shape of C. jejuni cells and related structures.

    Campylobacter bacteria are the number-one cause of food-related gastrointestinal illness in the United States. This scanning electron microscope image shows the characteristic spiral, or corkscrew, shape of C. jejuni cells and related structures.

Risk factors

In individuals with HIV, infections may be more frequent, may cause prolonged bouts of diarrhea, and may be more commonly associated with bacteremia and antibiotic resistance. The severity and persistence of infection in patients with AIDS and hypogammaglobulinemia indicates that both cell-mediated and humoral immunity are important in preventing and terminating infection.[24][25][26][27]

Transmission

Poultry

The common routes of transmission for the disease-causing bacteria are fecal-oral, person-to-person sexual contact, ingestion of contaminated food , generally unpasteurized (raw) milk and undercooked or poorly handled poultry, and waterborne. Contact with contaminated poultry, livestock, or household pets, especially puppies, can also cause disease.[28][29][30]

Animals farmed for meat are the main source of campylobacteriosis. A study published in PLoS Genetics (26 September 2008) by researchers from Lancashire, England, and Chicago, Illinois, found that 97 percent of campylobacteriosis cases sampled in Lancashire were caused by bacteria typically found in chicken and livestock. In 57 percent of cases, the bacteria could be traced to chicken, and in 35 percent to cattle. Wild animal and environmental sources were accountable for just three percent of disease.[31][32]

The infectious dose is 1000–10,000 bacteria, although ten to five hundred bacteria can be enough to infect humans. Campylobacter species are sensitive to hydrochloric acid in the stomach, and acid reduction treatment can reduce the amount of inoculum needed to cause disease.Exposure to bacteria is often more common during travelling, and therefore campylobacteriosis is a common form of travelers' diarrhea.[33][34][22][35]

Diagnosis

Campylobacter organisms can be detected by performing a Gram stain of a stool sample with high specificity and a sensitivity, but are most often diagnosed by stool culture. Fecal leukocytes should be present and indicate the diarrhea to be inflammatory in nature. Methods currently being developed to detect the presence of campylobacter organisms include antigen testing via an ELISA or PCR.[36][37]

Prevention

Checking chlorine level of the local water source.

Among the current methods for prevention are the following:[38][39]

  • Pasteurization of milk and chlorination of drinking water destroys the organisms.
  • Infected health care workers should not provide direct patient care.
  • Separate cutting boards should be used for foods of animal origin and other foods, after preparing raw food of animal origin, all cutting boards and countertops should be carefully cleaned with soap and hot water.
  • Contact with pet saliva and feces should be avoided.

The World Health Organization recommends the following:[40][41]

  • Food should be properly cooked and hot when served.
  • Consume only pasteurized or boiled milk and milk products, never raw milk products.
  • Make sure that ice is from safe water.
  • If you are not sure of the safety of drinking water, boil it, or disinfect it with chemical disinfectant.
  • Wash hands thoroughly and frequently with soap, especially after using the toilet and after contact with pets and farm animals.
  • Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly, especially if they are to be eaten raw. Peel fruits and vegetables whenever possible.
  • Food handlers, professionals and at home, should observe hygienic rules during food preparation.
  • Professional food handlers should immediately report to their employer any fever, diarrhea, vomiting or visible infected skin lesions.

Treatment

Erythromycin

The infection is usually self-limiting, and in most cases, symptomatic treatment by liquid and electrolyte replacement is enough in human infections.[36]

Antibiotics

Antibiotic treatment only has a marginal effect on the duration of symptoms, and its use is not recommended except in high-risk patients with clinical complications.[42]

Erythromycin can be used in children, and tetracycline in adults. Some studies show, however, that erythromycin rapidly eliminates Campylobacter from the stool without affecting the duration of illness. Nevertheless, children with dysentery due to C. jejuni benefit from early treatment with erythromycin. Treatment with antibiotics, therefore, depends on the severity of symptoms. Quinolones are effective if the organism is sensitive, but high rates of quinolone use in livestock mean that quinolones are now largely ineffective.[43][44][45]

In animals

In the past, poultry infections were often treated by mass administration of enrofloxacin and sarafloxacin for single instances of infection. The FDA banned this practice, as it promoted the development of fluoroquinolone-resistant populations.[46] A major broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone used in humans is ciprofloxacin, currently growing resistance of the Campylobacter to fluoroquinolones and macrolides is of a major concern.[47]

Prognosis

Campylobacteriosis is usually self-limited without any mortality, assuming proper hydration is maintained,however, there are several possible complications.[21]

Epidemiology

a,b)Predicted incidence of campylobacteriosis. Predicted annual incidence of reported cases of campylobacteriosis per 100,000 people in Quebec (1996–2006)[48]

Campylobacter is one of the most common causes of human bacterial gastroenteritis.[49] For instance, an estimated 2 million cases of Campylobacter enteritis occur annually in the U.S., accounting for 5–7% of cases of gastroenteritis. Furthermore, in the United Kingdom during 2000, Campylobacter jejuni was involved in 77.3% in all cases of laboratory confirmed foodborne illness.[50] About 20 of every 100,000 people are diagnosed with campylobacteriosis every year, and with many cases going unreported.[51]

Unfortunately, the true incidence of campylobacteriosis is unknown in most countries, especially developing countries. The reasons are among others underreporting, difficulties with diagnosis and differences in reporting systems in different countries.[52]

A large animal reservoir is present as well, with up to 100% of poultry, including chickens, turkeys, and waterfowl, having asymptomatic infections in their intestinal tracts. Infected chicken feces may contain up to 105-108 CFU/g, and due to the animals' close proximity, the bacteria are rapidly spread to other chickens. In January 2013, the UK's Food Standards Agency warned that high percentage of all raw chicken bought from UK shops was contaminated with campylobacter, affecting an estimated half a million people annually.[53][54][55]

Outbreak

In August–September 2016, 5,200 people fell ill with campylobacteriosis in Hastings, New Zealand after the local water supply in Havelock North tested positive for the pathogen Campylobacter jejuni.[56][57] Four deaths were suspected to be due to the outbreak.[58] It is suspected that after heavy rain fell on 5–6 August, water contamination from flooding caused the outbreak, although this is the subject of a government Inquiry.[59] It is the largest outbreak of waterborne disease ever to occur in New Zealand. All schools in Havelock North closed, with the Hastings District Council advising an urgent notice to boil water for at least one minute before consumption, this notice was lifted when the outbreak was officially under control.[60][61]

According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, a multistate outbreak of human Campylobacter infection has been reported since 11 September 2017. In all, 55 cases were reported from 12 states (Florida, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Utah, Wisconsin and Wyoming). Epidemiological and laboratory evidence indicated that puppies sold through Petland stores were a likely source of this outbreak. Out of 55 cases reported, 50 were either employees of Petland or had recently purchased a puppy at Petland, or visited there before illness began. Five people out of 55 cases reported were exposed to puppies from various sources.[62]

Campylobacter can spread through contact with dog feces. It usually does not spread from one person to another. However, activities such as changing an infected person's diapers or sexual contact with an infected person can lead to infection. Regardless of where they are from, any puppies and dogs may carry Campylobacter germs.[62]

References

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  2. ↑ Fu, Ying; Alenezi, Tahrir; Almansour, Ayidh; Wang, Hong; Jia, Zhenquan; Sun, Xiaolun (18 March 2021). "The Role of Immune Response and Microbiota on Campylobacteriosis". Campylobacter. IntechOpen. Archived from the original on 3 January 2024. Retrieved 13 April 2024.
  3. ↑ cdc.gov Archived 10 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Centers for disease Control and Prevention
  4. ↑ Barlow, Gavin; Irving, William L.; Moss, Peter J. (2020). "20. Infectious disease". In Feather, Adam; Randall, David; Waterhouse, Mona (eds.). Kumar and Clark's Clinical Medicine (10th ed.). Elsevier. pp. 539–541. ISBN 978-0-7020-7870-5. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
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  29. ↑ Mughini-Gras, Lapo; Pijnacker, Roan; Coipan, Claudia; Mulder, Annemieke C.; Fernandes Veludo, Adriana; de Rijk, Sharona; van Hoek, Angela H.A.M.; Buij, Ralph; Muskens, Gerard; Koene, Miriam; Veldman, Kees; Duim, Birgitta; van der Graaf-van Bloois, Linda; van der Weijden, Coen; Kuiling, Sjoerd; Verbruggen, Anjo; van der Giessen, Joke; Opsteegh, Marieke; van der Voort, Menno; Castelijn, Greetje A.A.; Schets, Franciska M.; Blaak, Hetty; Wagenaar, Jaap A.; Zomer, Aldert L.; Franz, Eelco (February 2021). "Sources and transmission routes of campylobacteriosis: A combined analysis of genome and exposure data". Journal of Infection. 82 (2): 216–226. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.09.039. PMID 33275955. S2CID 227297981. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
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  48. ↑ Arsenault, Julie; Berke, Olaf; Michel, Pascal; Ravel, André; Gosselin, Pierre (22 November 2012). "Environmental and demographic risk factors for campylobacteriosis: do various geographical scales tell the same story?". BMC Infectious Diseases. 12: 318. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-12-318. ISSN 1471-2334. PMC 3570353. PMID 23173982.
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  53. ↑ "FSA warns that chicken bacteria could be next meat scandal". 5 April 2018. Archived from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2018 – via www.telegraph.co.uk.
  54. ↑ "A REFRESHED STRATEGY TO REDUCE CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS FROM POULTRY" (PDF). Food Standards agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 June 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  55. ↑ Facciolà, A; Riso, R; Avventuroso, E; Visalli, G; Delia, SA; Laganà, P (June 2017). "Campylobacter: from microbiology to prevention". Journal of preventive medicine and hygiene. 58 (2): E79–E92. PMID 28900347. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
  56. ↑ "Something in the water – How the Havelock gastro outbreak began". The New Zealand Herald. 19 August 2016. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
  57. ↑ "A cautionary tale of untreated groundwater, Campylobacter, and New Zealand's largest drinking water outbreak". Water Quality and Health Council. 21 October 2016. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
  58. ↑ Mitchell, Charlie (13 March 2020). "Schools, hospital among providers of drinking water that's not demonstrably safe". Stuff. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.
  59. ↑ "Government Inquiry into Havelock North Drinking-Water". dia.govt.nz. Department of Internal Affairs (New Zealand). Archived from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  60. ↑ Gilpin, Brent J.; Walker, Tiffany; Paine, Shevaun; Sherwood, Jill; Mackereth, Graham; Wood, Tim; Hambling, Tammy; Hewison, Chris; Brounts, Angela; Wilson, Maurice; Scholes, Paula; Robson, Beth; Lin, Susan; Cornelius, Angela; Rivas, Lucia; Hayman, David T. S.; French, Nigel P.; Zhang, Ji; Wilkinson, David A.; Midwinter, Anne C.; Biggs, Patrick J.; Jagroop, Anita; Eyre, Rachel; Baker, Michael G.; Jones, Nicholas (1 September 2020). "A large scale waterborne Campylobacteriosis outbreak, Havelock North, New Zealand". Journal of Infection. 81 (3): 390–395. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2020.06.065. ISSN 0163-4453. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2023.
  61. ↑ Varrone, Liana; Glass, Kathryn; Stafford, Russell J.; Kirk, Martyn D.; Selvey, Linda (August 2020). "A meta-analysis of case-control studies examining sporadic campylobacteriosis in Australia and New Zealand from 1990 to 2016". Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health. 44 (4): 313–319. doi:10.1111/1753-6405.12998. ISSN 1753-6405. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "Multistate Outbreak of Multidrug-Resistant Campylobacter Infections Linked to Contact with Pet Store Puppies". US Centers for Disease Control. 3 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 26 October 2017. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

External links

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External resources
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