Anchusa officinalis

From WikiProjectMed
Jump to navigation Jump to search

Anchusa officinalis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Boraginales
Family: Boraginaceae
Genus: Anchusa
Species:
A. officinalis
Binomial name
Anchusa officinalis
Subspecies[1]
  • Anchusa officinalis subsp. intacta (Griseb.) Selvi & Bigazzi
  • Anchusa officinalis subsp. officinalis
Synonyms[2][3]
List
    • Anchusa angustifolia L.
    • Anchusa arvalis Rchb.
    • Anchusa davidovii Stoj.
    • Anchusa incarnata Schrad. ex Steud.
    • Anchusa leptophylla W.D.J.Koch
    • Anchusa lycopsidis Besser ex Link
    • Anchusa macedonica Velen.
    • Anchusa macrocalyx Hausskn.
    • Anchusa maculata Hornem. ex Steud.
    • Anchusa microcalyx Vis.
    • Anchusa moesiaca Velen.
    • Anchusa ochroleuca Baumg.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. alba Gray
    • Anchusa officinalis subsp. angustifolia (L.) Bjelcic
    • Anchusa officinalis var. angustifolia (L.) Lej.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. angustior Hartm.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. arvalis (Rchb.) Rouy
    • Anchusa officinalis var. brachyantha Regel
    • Anchusa officinalis var. glabrescens Wimm. & Grab.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. hirsuta Wimm. & Grab.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. hispida Wimm. & Grab.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. incarnata Gray
    • Anchusa officinalis subvar. intacta (Griseb.) Guşul.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. longiflora Griseb.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. macrantha H.Post
    • Anchusa officinalis var. minor Gaudin
    • Anchusa officinalis var. moesiaca (Velen.) Guşul.
    • Anchusa officinalis f. roseiflora H.Post
    • Anchusa officinalis f. undulatifolia Wimm. & Grab.
    • Anchusa officinalis var. velenovskyi Guşul.
    • Anchusa osmanica Velen.
    • Anchusa pustulata Schur
    • Anchusa spicata Lam.
    • Anchusa tinctoria Woodv.
    • Anchusa undulata var. intacta Griseb.
    • Anchusa velenovskyi (Guşul.) Stoj.
    • Anchusa velenovskyi var. stojanovii St.Kozhukharov
    • Buglossum angustifolium (L.) Moench
    • Buglossum aspermum Gilib.
    • Buglossum officinale Lam.

Anchusa officinalis, also knowns as common bugloss or common alkanet, is a species of flowering plant in the borage family. It is native to Europe and small parts of western Asia, but has been escaped from cultivation to grow in additional locations in Europe and the Americas. The flowers are noted for their popularity with bumblebees due to a large nectar flow. The plants have been used in traditional medicines, but were falling out of favor by the early 1800s. They are still planted in gardens for their popularity with bees and their blue flowers.

Description

The hairy stems of Anchusa officinalis

This herbaceous plant with well developed stems most often grows 40 to 70 centimeters tall,[4] but may reach 100 centimeters tall in ideal conditions.[5] It may be an annual, biennial, or perennial.[4] The whole of the plant is covered in short, coarse hairs.[6] Plants have a strong taproot that may be as long as one meter.[7]

Bugloss has leaves that are shaped like a narrow spear head (lance-linear), with the widest portion in the middle and tapering towards both ends.[4] Leaves located lower down on the stems have their own leaf stems while those towards the ends of the stems have bases that clasp the stem.[6] Leaves are arranged alternately on the stem.[7] The length of the leaves is 6–20 centimeters and the width is 1–2.5 centimeters.[4]

Anchusa officinalis flowers

The flowering clusters (cymes) at the ends of the stems are densely packed with blooms along one side of the stem.[5] When new the flowers are dark pink or crimson in color and typically become dark purple-blue with a white center as they age.[6][7] However, they may also be violet, reddish, white, or yellowish in color.[5] The fused petals (the corolla) are 6–11 millimeters long and 6–11 millimeters wide.[4] When blooming the sepals (calyx) may be 5–7 millimeters long, but they persist into fruiting and become 8–12 millimeters long.[4] The white center of the flowers are scales that close the throat of the flower.[6] The flowering season is from June until August in Europe.[7]

Anchusa officinalis flower close up

The fruit is called a nutlet, the hardened lobed ovary of the plant.[4] Each is 2 millimeters wide by about 3–4 millimeters long.[8] Each fruit may have up to four seeds, but will usually have fewer. The flowers are self-incompatible and dependent on the services of pollinators to accomplish good seed set.[9] Seeds may be produced from August to October.[7]

Chemistry

Flower, disected and opened to show internal structure

The most common plant chemicals found in common bugloss are ones derived from phenolic acid. Specific compounds include p-Coumaric acid, danshensu, caffeic acid, neochlorogenic acid, salvianolic acid, and rosmarinic acid. The flavonoids and flavonols are present in lower, but still significant amount. They include afzelin, Kaempferol 3-O-rutinoside, and rutin.[10]

Range and habitat

The native range of the species is in Europe from France into Russia west of the Ural Mountains and then south in to Kazakhstan. It has been introduced to additional places in Europe such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, and Finland.[1] It has also been introduced to North America and is found on the Pacific coast from British Columbia to California and in many of the Rocky Mountain states including Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Colorado. In the eastern US, it is found in Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Ontario, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin.[11] Elsewhere, it also grows in northeastern Argentina.[1]

Common alkanet grows in varied environments such as sandy grasslands in coastal dunes, wastelands that were formerly developed or farmed areas, in shrub communities, the slopes of former quarry sites, and along roadsides.[12][13]

Taxonomy

As with many plants and other species, the first scientific name was given to Anchusa officinalis by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[1] At the same time he misidentified some specimens as a separate species, Anchusa angustifolia which is now regarded as a synonym of Anchusa officinalis subsp. officinalis.[2] Since that time, 39 more species and subspecies that are now regarded as synonyms have been published.

Table of Synonyms[2][3]
Name Year Rank Synonym of: Notes Ref.
Anchusa angustifolia L. 1753 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa arvalis Rchb. 1831 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [14]
Anchusa davidovii Stoj. 1933 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa incarnata Schrad. ex Steud. 1821 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [15]
Anchusa leptophylla W.D.J.Koch 1844 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [16]
Anchusa lycopsidis Besser ex Link 1821 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [17]
Anchusa macedonica Velen. 1898 species A. o. subsp. intacta nom. illeg. [18]
Anchusa macrocalyx Hausskn. 1887 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa maculata Hornem. ex Steud. 1840 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [19]
Anchusa microcalyx Vis. 1829 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [20]
Anchusa moesiaca Velen. 1893 publ. 1894 species A. o. subsp. intacta
Anchusa ochroleuca Baumg. 1816 species A. o. subsp. officinalis nom. illeg. [21]
Anchusa officinalis var. alba Gray 1821 publ. 1822 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis subsp. angustifolia (L.) Bjelcic 1960 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis not validly publ.
Anchusa officinalis var. angustifolia (L.) Lej. 1825 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. angustior Hartm. 1832 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. arvalis (Rchb.) Rouy 1908 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. brachyantha Regel 1863 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. glabrescens Wimm. & Grab. 1827 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. hirsuta Wimm. & Grab. 1827 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. hispida Wimm. & Grab. 1827 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. incarnata Gray 1821 publ. 1822 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis subvar. intacta (Griseb.) Guşul. 1927 subspecies A. o. subsp. intacta
Anchusa officinalis var. longiflora Griseb. 1844 subspecies A. o. subsp. intacta
Anchusa officinalis var. macrantha H.Post 1844 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. minor Gaudin 1828 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. moesiaca (Velen.) Guşul. 1927 subspecies A. o. subsp. intacta
Anchusa officinalis f. roseiflora H.Post 1846 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis f. undulatifolia Wimm. & Grab. 1827 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa officinalis var. velenovskyi Guşul. 1927 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa osmanica Velen. 1885 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa pustulata Schur 1866 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [22]
Anchusa spicata Lam. 1792 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [23]
Anchusa tinctoria Woodv. 1791 species A. o. subsp. officinalis nom. illeg. [24]
Anchusa undulata var. intacta Griseb. 1844 subspecies A. o. subsp. intacta
Anchusa velenovskyi (Guşul.) Stoj. 1933 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Anchusa velenovskyi var. stojanovii St.Kozhukharov 1989 subspecies A. o. subsp. officinalis
Buglossum angustifolium (L.) Moench 1794 species A. o. subsp. officinalis
Buglossum aspermum Gilib. 1782 species A. o. subsp. officinalis opus utique oppr. [25]
Buglossum officinale Lam. 1779 species A. o. subsp. officinalis [26]

As of 2024, Anchusa officinalis L. is listed by Plants of the World Online (POWO) and World Flora Online (WFO) as the accepted name for this species.[1][8]

Subspecies

Illustration from Deutschlands Flora in Abbldungen, 1796

As of 2024, two subspecies are recognized. The autonym Anchusa officinalis subsp. officinalis and Anchusa officinalis subsp. intacta. The subspecies intacta was first described and named by August Grisebach in 1844.[3] In 2003 the botanists Federico Selvi and Massimo Bigazzi (1953–2006) published a paper where they better defined the relationship of ssp. intacta with the rest of the species and found evidence that it originated from a hybridization event with the Anatolian relative Anchusa leptophylla.[27]

Names

The name for the genus Anchusa is botanical Latin derived from the Greek "agchousa" or "egchousa", the name for plants from which rouge were made. From the Greek word "egchousizein", to put on rouge. The species name, or specific epithet, officinalis is an adjective used in medieval Latin meaning of a workshop. This name has been applied to many plants that have or had a common use.[28]

This plant is frequently called "common bugloss" in the United States,[5] distinguishing it from Anchusa arvensis which is frequently called simply "bugloss".[29] It is also sometimes called "small garden buglosse".[1] This name is a reference to the blue flowers suggesting the blueish tongue of a cow, from medieval Latin "buglossus", ox-toungued.[28]

The names "common alkanet" or simply "alkanet" are frequently used for this species,[30][5] but alkanet alone is occasionally used for other species such as Alkanna tinctoria, Pentaglottis sempervirens,[31] Brunnera macrophylla,[32] or to the genus Anchusa as a whole.[33] This name comes to English by way of Spanish from the Moorish Arabic "al-hannat", henna, though the plants have nothing to do with each other.[28]

Ecology

Anchusa officinalis in Baranowice near Wąsosz, SW Poland

The plant provides a great deal of nectar for pollinators. It was rated ninth in nectar production (nectar per unit cover per year) in a UK plants survey conducted by the Agriland project.[34] Bumblebees and cuckoo bumblebees visit the flowers of common bugloss significantly more frequently than other bees, often representing over 90% of the visitors to flowers.[9][12] The common European species, Bombus subterraneus, is one that is specifically identified as a pollinator.[35] Females of the specialist bee species Hoplitis adunca only visit flowers of genus Echium to collect pollen, but they frequently visit other blue flowers like Anchusa officinalis to collect nectar.[36]

Weed status

Common bugloss has been considered a noxious weed in Washington State since 1988 with prohibitions on transporting or selling plants in the state.[37] It is similarly listed as a noxious weed in Oregon on their "B List" and "T List", as a regionally common weed that is a focus of preventative control.[38][39] In British Columbia it is listed as an invasive plant and a "regional noxious weed" in the Regional District of Kootenay Boundary.[40] It is of concern in agriculture both for competing with more desirable forage species in fields and for causing baled hay to rot due to the high moisture content of its leaves.[37]

Uses

Ornamental

Common bugloss is sometimes planted in kitchen, herb, or wildflower gardens. It is cold tolerant, able to endure winter temperatures at least as low as -20°C. In a garden setting it requires good drainage, particularly in wet climates.[41] Though in dry climates with typically freely draining soils, like Colorado, it known from relatively moist areas.[13] In gardens seeds are planted as soon as the soil can be worked. Taller plants are staked to prevent them from falling over. They are winter hardy in USDA zones 3–10.[42]

Culinary

The young leaves and young shoots of bugloss, when the hairs are still soft, are eaten in southern France and parts of Germany. Like the leaves of spinach they are steamed or boiled before consumption.[43] Young leaves are also sometimes used in salads.[7] However, the pyrrolizidine alkaloid lycopsamine has been found in the seeds and the upper parts of the plant. While there are no records of toxic effects in humans or animals similar unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids have caused toxic effects and further studies have been urged as the plant flowers are occasionally sold as a food ingredient.[44]

Traditional uses

Though physicians in his time regarded Nicholas Culpeper as, "something of a fraud",[45] his book The English Physician Enlarged was also very popular,[46] five editions of it being printed before 1698.[46] Culpeper wrote of Anchusa officinalis under the names "alkanet", "orchanet", "Spanish bugloss", and "enchusa". He claimed many virtues for the plant, including that it would cure snake bites and the extraordinary claim that, "if any one that hath newly eaten it, do but spit into the mouth of a serpent, the serpent instantly dies."[45][47][48]

In European medical herbalism it was used prior to about 1810 for having "aperient and refrigerant" virtues (laxative and fever lowering). However, the physician and botanist William Woodville wrote, "as all the common oloraceous plants are cooling and laxative, these properties are no peculiar recommendation of Bugloss."[49] The Greek physician in the 1st century Pedanius Dioscorides wrote of the astringent effect of the root of common bugloss. He also said that it was effective for the healing of burns and old ulcers when the root was boiled in oil. Preparations of the root were also used externally to treat pain and soothe the skin as well as promoting wound healing. The late medieval botanist Hieronymus Bock recommended it to treat depression and strengthen the heart.[7] Though both Leonhart Fuchs and Bock wrote that it could be used to treat depression,[7] Woodville attributed all its supposed effectiveness to the fact that it was administered in wine.[49] It is generally regarded as obsolete as a remedy due to the levels of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in the plant.[50]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f "Anchusa officinalis L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  2. ^ a b c "Anchusa officinalis subsp. officinalis". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  3. ^ a b c "Anchusa officinalis subsp. intacta (Griseb.) Selvi & Bigazzi". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g Ackerfield, Jennifer (2015). Flora of Colorado (1st ed.). Fort Worth, Texas: BRIT Press. p. 206. ISBN 9781889878454.
  5. ^ a b c d e Bennett, Masha (2003). Pulmonarias and the Borage Family. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. pp. 71, 76, 77. ISBN 978-0-88192-589-0. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  6. ^ a b c d Felsko, Elsa (1963). A Book of Wild Flowers (2nd impression ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Bruno Cassirer. p. 185. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Montag, Andreas (2023). "Ochsenzunge, Gemeine (Anchusa officinalis)". Pflanzen und Haut (in German). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 763–765. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-63014-3_118. ISBN 978-3-662-63013-6. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  8. ^ a b "Anchusa officinalis L." World Flora Online. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  9. ^ a b Andersson, Stefan (1988). "Size-Dependent Pollination Efficiency in Anchusa officinalis (Boraginaceae): Causes and Consequences". Oecologia. 76 (1): 125–130. Bibcode:1988Oecol..76..125A. doi:10.1007/BF00379610. ISSN 0029-8549. JSTOR 4218645. PMID 28312389. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  10. ^ Stanoeva, Jasmina Petreska; Stefova, Marina; Matevski, Vlado (May 2023). "Extraction, Distribution and Diversity of Phenolic Compounds in Most Widespread Boraginaceae Species from Macedonia". Chemistry & Biodiversity. 20 (5): e202201149. doi:10.1002/cbdv.202201149. PMID 37026584. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  11. ^ Anchusa officinalis, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Profile, 13 February 2024
  12. ^ a b Banaszak, Józef (2010). "Bees of the Wolin National Park: diversity and ecology (Hymenoptera: Apoidea, Apiformes)". Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne (Polish Journal of Entomology). 79: 58, 59, 73. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  13. ^ a b Elder, Mary Esther (1912). "Roadside Plants of a High Mountain Park in Colorado". Torreya. 12 (8): 175, 176. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  14. ^ Reichenbach, H. G. Ludwig (1830). Flora Germanica Excursoria (in Latin and German). Carolum Cnobloch. p. 343. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  15. ^ Steudel, Ernst Gottlieb (1821). Nomenclator Botanicus :Enumerans Ordine Alphabetico Nomina Atque Synonyma, Tum Generica Tum Specifica, et a Linnaeo et Recentioribus de re Botanica Scriptoribus Plantis Phanerogamis Imposita (in Latin). Sumptibus J.G. Cottae. p. 42. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  16. ^ Koch, Wilhelm Daniel Joseph (1846). Synopsis der Deutschen und Schweizer Flora (in German). Leipzig, Germany: Gebhardt & Reisland. p. 589. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  17. ^ Link, Johann Heinrich Friedrich (1821). Enumeratio Plantarum Horti Regii Botanici Berolinensis Altera (in Latin). apud G. Reimer. p. 166. Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  18. ^ Velenovský, Josef (1898). Flora Bulgarica : descriptio et enumeratio systematica plantarum vascularium in Principatu Bulgariae sponte nascentium (in Latin) (Supplementum 1 ed.). F. Rivnác. p. 197. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
  19. ^ Steudel, Ernst Gottlieb (1840). Nomenclator Botanicus, seu, Synonymia Plantarum Universalis :Enumerans Ordine Alphabetico Nomina Atque Synonyma, tum Generica tum Specifica, et a Linnaeo et a Recentioribus de re Botanica Scriptoribus Plantis Phanerogamis Imposita (in Latin) (Secunda ed.). typis et sumptibus J.G. Cottae. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  20. ^ Visiani, Roberto de (1829). "Plantae rariores in Dalmatia recens detectae a Roberto de Visiani, M.D. et plurium Academiarum Sodali". Flora oder Botanische Zeitung (in Latin). 12 (1). Königl Bayer Botanische Gesellschaft zu Regensburg: 8. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  21. ^ Baumgarten, Johann Christian Gottlob (1816). Enumeratio stirpium Magno Transsilvaniae principatui : praeprimis indigenarum in usum nostratum botanophilorum conscripta inque ordinem sexuali-naturalem concinnata (in Latin). Vindebonae : In Libraria Camesinae. p. 120. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  22. ^ Schur, Philipp Johann Ferdinand (1885). Enumeratio Plantarum Transsilvaniae (in Latin). Sumptibus C. Graeser. p. 465. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  23. ^ Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1791). Tableau Encyclopedique et Methodique Botanique Premiere Livraison (in Latin). Vol. 1. Paris: Avec Privilege du Roi. p. 402. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  24. ^ Woodville, William (1791). Medical Botany (in English and Latin). Vol. 2. London: James Phillips. pp. 250–252. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  25. ^ Gilibert, Jean-Emmanuel (1781). Flora Lituanica inchoata (in Latin). Vol. 1. Grodnae : typis S.R.M. pp. 21–22. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  26. ^ Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1779). Flore Françoise, ou, Description succincte de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France (in French). Vol. 2 (1st ed.). l'Imprimerie Royale. p. 278. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  27. ^ Selvi, Federico; Bigazzi, Massimo (August 2003). "Revision of genus Anchusa (Boraginaceae-Boragineae) in Greece". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 142 (4): 431–454. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.00206.x. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
  28. ^ a b c Casselman, William Gordon (1997). Canadian Garden Words : The Origin of Flower, Tree, and Plant Names, Both Wild and Domestic, Entertainingly Derived From Their Sources in the Ancient Tongues Together With Fancy Botanical Names & Why You Shall Never Again Be Afraid to Use Them!. Toronto, Ontario: Little, Brown and Company (Canada) Ltd. pp. 9–10. ISBN 978-0-316-13343-2.
  29. ^ Forey, Pamela (1992). The Pocket Guide to Wild Flowers of the British Isles and Northern Europe (1st ed.). Limpsfield, United Kingdom: Dragon's World. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-85028-083-5. Retrieved 10 January 2024.
  30. ^ Hutchinson, J. (1958). Wild Flowers in Colour. Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd. p. 79. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  31. ^ Genders, Roy (1984). The Complete Book of Herbs and Herb Growing. London: Ward Lock Limited. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-7063-6208-4. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  32. ^ Hagen, Margaret; Neal, Cathy; van Berkum, Leslie (2003). Axman, Andi (ed.). The Best Plants for New Hampshire Gardens and Landscapes. Bow, New Hampshire: New Hampshire Plant Growers' Association. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-9719675-2-6. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  33. ^ Hellyer, Arthur George Lee (1957). Popular Encyclopadaedia of Flowering Plants. London: W. H. & L. Collingridge Ltd. p. 18.
  34. ^ "Which flowers are the best source of nectar?". Conservation Grade. 2014-10-15. Archived from the original on 2019-12-14. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
  35. ^ Dylewska, Mirostawa; Bak, Jolanta (2005). "Apiformes (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) of the Łysogóry Mountains and Adjacent Area". Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia. 48B: 161. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  36. ^ Burger, Hannah; Dötterl, Stefan; Ayasse, Manfred (December 2010). "Host-plant finding and recognition by visual and olfactory floral cues in an oligolectic bee". Functional Ecology. 24 (6): 1234–1240. Bibcode:2010FuEco..24.1234B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01744.x.
  37. ^ a b "Common Bugloss". Noxious Weed Control Board. Washington State. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  38. ^ "Oregon Noxious Weeds - Oregon Noxious Weed Profiles". State of Oregon. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  39. ^ "Noxious Weed Policy and Classification System 2022" (PDF). State of Oregon. Oregon Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  40. ^ "Weed Control Regulation". BC Laws. King's Printer for British Columbia. 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  41. ^ Buczacki, Stefan (2000). Best Kitchen Herbs (2nd ed.). London: Hamlyn. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-0-600-60087-9. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  42. ^ Gardner, Jo Ann (1998). Herbs in Bloom : A Guide to Growing Herbs as Ornamental Plants. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. pp. 89–91. ISBN 978-0-585-31682-6. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
  43. ^ Facciola, Stephen (1990). Cornucopia : A Source Book of Edible Plants. Vista, California: Kampong Publications. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-9628087-0-8. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  44. ^ Egebjerg, Mikael M.; Olesen, Pelle T.; Eriksen, Folmer D.; Ravn-Haren, Gitte; Bredsdorff, Lea; Pilegaard, Kirsten (October 2018). "Are wild and cultivated flowers served in restaurants or sold by local producers in Denmark safe for the consumer?" (PDF). Food and Chemical Toxicology. 120: 129–142. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2018.07.007. PMID 29981787.
  45. ^ a b Boggs, Kate Doggett (1932). Prints and Plants of Old Gardens. Richmond, Virginia: Garrett & Massie, Publishers. pp. 21, 22, 81. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  46. ^ a b Rohde, Eleanour Sinclair (1922). Old English Herbals. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 163–166. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  47. ^ Culpeper, Nicholas (1662). The English Physitian Enlarged. London: A. and J. Churchill. pp. 3–4. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  48. ^ Culpeper, Nicholas (1814). Culpeper's Complete Herbal : To Which Are Now First Annexed His English Physician Enlarged, and Key to Physic. London: Richard Evans. p. 3. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
  49. ^ a b Woodville, William (1810). Medical Botany. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). London. pp. 306–307. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
  50. ^ Weigend, M.; Selvi, F.; Thomas, D. C.; Hilger, H. H. (2016). "Boraginaceae: Boraginaceae Juss., Gen. Pl.: 128 (1789) ('Borragineae'), nom. cons.". Flowering Plants. Eudicots. Springer International Publishing. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-3-319-28532-0.

External links

Retrieved from "https://mdwiki.org/wiki/Anchusa_officinalis"